representative government-第7章

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e　observation　a　higher　generality）　the　form　of　government　which　is　most　effectual　for　carrying　a　people　through　the　next　stage　of　progress　will　still　be　very　improper　for　them　if　it　does　this　in　such　a　manner　as　to　obstruct；　or　positively　unfit　them　for；　the　step　next　beyond。　Such　cases　are　frequent；　and　are　among　the　most　melancholy　facts　in　history。　The　Egyptian　hierarchy；　the　paternal　despotism　of　China；　were　very　fit　instruments　for　carrying　those　nations　up　to　the　point　of　civilisation　which　they　attained。　But　having　reached　that　point；　they　were　brought　to　a　permanent　halt　for　want　of　mental　liberty　and　individuality；　requisites　of　improvement　which　the　institutions　that　had　carried　them　thus　far　entirely　incapacitated　them　from　acquiring；　and　as　the　institutions　did　not　break　down　and　give　place　to　others；　further　improvement　stopped。　　　In　contrast　with　these　nations；　let　us　consider　the　example　of　an　opposite　character　afforded　by　another　and　a　comparatively　insignificant　Oriental　people…　the　Jews。　They；　too；　had　an　absolute　monarchy　and　a　hierarchy；　their　organised　institutions　were　as　obviously　of　sacerdotal　origin　as　those　of　the　Hindoos。　These　did　for　them　what　was　done　for　other　Oriental　races　by　their　institutions…　subdued　them　to　industry　and　order；　and　gave　them　a　national　life。　But　neither　their　kings　nor　their　priests　ever　obtained；　as　in　those　other　countries；　the　exclusive　moulding　of　their　character。　Their　religion；　which　enabled　persons　of　genius　and　a　high　religious　tone　to　be　regarded　and　to　regard　themselves　as　inspired　from　heaven；　gave　existence　to　an　inestimably　precious　unorganised　institution…　the　Order　（if　it　may　be　so　termed）　of　Prophets。　Under　the　protection；　generally　though　not　always　effectual；　of　their　sacred　character；　the　Prophets　were　a　power　in　the　nation；　often　more　than　a　match　for　kings　and　priests；　and　kept　up；　in　that　little　corner　of　the　earth；　the　antagonism　of　influences　which　is　the　only　real　security　for　continued　progress。　Religion　consequently　was　not　there　what　it　has　been　in　so　many　other　places…　a　consecration　of　all　that　was　once　established；　and　a　barrier　against　further　improvement。　The　remark　of　a　distinguished　Hebrew；　M。　Salvador；　that　the　Prophets　were；　in　Church　and　State；　the　equivalent　of　the　modern　liberty　of　the　press；　gives　a　just　but　not　an　adequate　conception　of　the　part　fulfilled　in　national　and　universal　history　by　this　great　element　of　Jewish　life；　by　means　of　which；　the　canon　of　inspiration　never　being　complete；　the　persons　most　eminent　in　genius　and　moral　feeling　could　not　only　denounce　and　reprobate；　with　the　direct　authority　of　the　Almighty；　whatever　appeared　to　them　deserving　of　such　treatment；　but　could　give　forth　better　and　higher　interpretations　of　the　national　religion；　which　thenceforth　became　part　of　the　religion。　Accordingly；　whoever　can　divest　himself　of　the　habit　of　reading　the　Bible　as　if　it　was　one　book；　which　until　lately　was　equally　inveterate　in　Christians　and　in　unbelievers；　sees　with　admiration　the　vast　interval　between　the　morality　and　religion　of　the　Pentateuch；　or　even　of　the　historical　books　（the　unmistakable　work　of　Hebrew　Conservatives　of　the　sacerdotal　order）；　and　the　morality　and　religion　of　the　Prophecies：　a　distance　as　wide　as　between　these　last　and　the　Gospels。　Conditions　more　favourable　to　Progress　could　not　easily　exist：　accordingly；　the　Jews；　instead　of　being　stationary　like　other　Asiatics；　were；　next　to　the　Greeks；　the　most　progressive　people　of　antiquity；　and；　jointly　with　them；　have　been　the　starting…point　and　main　propelling　agency　of　modern　cultivation。　　　It　is；　then；　impossible　to　understand　the　question　of　the　adaptation　of　forms　of　government　to　states　of　society　without　taking　into　account　not　only　the　next　step；　but　all　the　steps　which　society　has　yet　to　make；　both　those　which　can　be　foreseen；　and　the　far　wider　indefinite　range　which　is　at　present　out　of　sight。　It　follows；　that　to　judge　of　the　merits　of　forms　of　government；　an　ideal　must　be　constructed　of　the　form　of　government　most　eligible　in　itself；　that　is；　which；　if　the　necessary　conditions　existed　for　giving　effect　to　its　beneficial　tendencies；　would；　more　than　all　others；　favour　and　promote　not　some　one　improvement；　but　all　forms　and　degrees　of　it。　This　having　been　done；　we　must　consider　what　are　the　mental　conditions　of　all　sorts；　necessary　to　enable　this　government　to　realise　its　tendencies；　and　what；　therefore；　are　the　various　defects　by　which　a　people　is　made　incapable　of　reaping　its　benefits。　It　would　then　be　possible　to　construct　a　theorem　of　the　circumstances　in　which　that　form　of　government　may　wisely　be　introduced；　and　also　to　judge；　in　cases　in　which　it　had　better　not　be　introduced；　what　inferior　forms　of　polity　will　best　carry　those　communities　through　the　intermediate　stages　which　they　must　traverse　before　they　can　become　fit　for　the　best　form　of　government。　　　Of　these　inquiries；　the　last　does　not　concern　us　here；　but　the　first　is　an　essential　part　of　our　subject：　for　we　may；　without　rashness；　at　once　enunciate　a　proposition；　the　proofs　and　illustrations　of　which　will　present　themselves　in　the　ensuing　pages；　that　this　ideally　best　form　of　government　will　be　found　in　some　one　or　other　variety　of　the　Representative　System。　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Chapter　3　　　That　the　ideally　best　Form　of　Government　is　Representative　Government。

　IT　HAS　long　（perhaps　throughout　the　entire　duration　of　British　freedom）　been　a　common　saying；　that　if　a　good　despot　could　be　ensured；　despotic　monarchy　would　be　the　best　form　of　government。　I　look　upon　this　as　a　radical　and　most　pernicious　misconception　of　what　good　government　is；　which；　until　it　can　be　got　rid　of；　will　fatally　vitiate　all　our　speculations　on　government。　　　The　supposition　is；　that　absolute　power；　in　the　hands　of　an　eminent　individual；　would　ensure　a　virtuous　and　intelligent　performance　of　all　the　duties　of　government。　Good　laws　would　be　established　and　enforced；　bad　laws　would　be　reformed；　the　best　men　would　be　placed　in　all　situations　of　trust；　justice　would　be　as　well　administered；　the　public　burthens　would　be　as　light　and　as　judiciously　imposed；　every　branch　of　administration　would　be　as　purely　and　as　intelligently　conducted；　as　the　circumstances　of　the　country　and　its　degree　of　intellectual　and　moral　cultivation　would　admit。　I　am　willing；　for　the　sake　of　the　argument；　to　concede　all　this；　but　I　must　point　out　how　great　the　concession　is；　how　much　more　is　needed　to　produce　even　an　approximation　to　these　results　than　is　conveyed　in　the　simple　expression；　a　good　despot。　Their　realisation　would　in　fact　imply；　not　merely　a　good　monarch；　but　an　all…seeing　one。　He　must　be　at　all　times　informed　correctly；　in　considerable　detail；　of　the　conduct　and　working　of　every　branch　of　administration；　in　every　district　of　the　country；　and　must　be　able；　in　the　twenty…four　hours　per　day　which　are　all　that　is　granted　to　a　king　as　to　the　humblest　labourer；　to　give　an　effective　share　of　attention　and　superintendence　to　all　parts　of　this　vast　field；　or　he　must　at　least　be　capable　of　discerning　and　choosing　out；　from　among　the　mass　of　his　subjects；　not　only　a　large　abundance　of　honest　and　able　men；　fit　to　conduct　every　branch　of　public　administration　under　supervision　and　control；　but　also　the　small　number　of　men　of　eminent　virtues　and　talents　who　can　be　trusted　not　only　to　do　without　that　supervision；　but　to　exercise　it　themselves　over　others。　So　extraordinary　are　the　faculties　and　energies　required　for　performing　this　task　in　any　supportable　manner；　that　the　good　despot　whom　we　are　supposing　can　hardly　be　imagined　as　consenting　to　undertake　it；　unless　as　a　refuge　from　intolerable　evils；　and　a　transitional　preparation　for　something　beyond。　But　the　argument　can　do　without　even　this　immense　item　in　the　account。　Suppose　the　difficulty　vanquished。　What　should　we　then　have？　One　man　of　superhuman　mental　activity　managing　the　entire　affairs　of　a　mentally　passive　people。　Their　passivity　is　implied　in　the　very　idea　of　absolute　power。　The　nation　as　a　whole；　and　every　individual　composing　it；　are　without　any　potential　voice　in　their　own　destiny。　They　exercise　no　will　in　respect　to　their　collective　interests。　All　is　decided　for　them　by　a　will　not　their　own；　which　it　is　legally　a　crime　for　them　to　disobey。　　　What　sort　of　human　beings　can　be　formed　under　such　a　regimen？　What　development　can　either　their　thinking　or　their　active　faculties　attain　under　it？　On　matters　of　pure　theory　they　might　perhaps　be　allowed　to　speculate；　so　long　as　their　speculations　either　did　not　approach　politics；　or　had　not　the　remotest　connection　with　its　practice。　On　practical　affairs　they　could　at　most　be　only　suffered　to　suggest；　and　even　under　the　most　moderate　of　despots；　none　but　persons　of　already　admitted　or　reputed　superiority　could　hope　that　their　suggestions　would　be　known　to；　much　less　regarded　by；　those　who　had　the　management　of　affairs。　A　person　must　have　a　very　unusual　taste　for　intellectual　exercise　in　and　for　itself；　who　will　put　himself　to　the　trouble　of　thought　when　it　is　to　have　no　outward　effect；　or　qualify　himself　for　functions　which　he　has　no　chance　of　being　allowed　to　exercise。　The　only　sufficient　incitement　to　mental　exertion；　in　any　but　a　few　minds　in　a　generation；　is　the　prospect　of　some　practical　use　to　be　made　of　its　results。　It　does　not　follow　that　the　nation　will　be　wholly　destitute　of　intellectual　power。　The　common　business　of　life；　which　must　necessarily　be　performed　by　each　individual　or　family　for　themselves；　will　call　forth　some　amount　of　intelligence　and　practical　ability；　within　a　certain　narrow　range　of　ideas。　There　may　be　a　select　class　of　savants；　who　cultivate　science　with　a　view　to　its　physical　uses；　or　for　the　pleasure　of　the　pursuit。　There　will　be　a　bureaucracy；　and　persons　in　training　for　the　bureaucracy；　who　will　be　taught　at　least　some　empirical　maxims　of　government　and　public　administration。　There　may　be；　and　often　has　been；　a　systematic　organisation　of　the　best　mental　power　in　the　country　in　some　special　direction　（commonly　military）　to　promote　the　grandeur　of　the　despot。　But　the　public　at　large　remain　without　information　and　without　interest　on　all　greater　matters　of　practice；　or；　if　they　have　any　knowledge　of　them；　it　is　but　a　dilettante　knowledge；　like　that　which　people　have　of　the　mechanical　arts　who　have　never　handled　a　tool。　　　Nor　is　it　only　in　their　intelligence　that　they　suffer。　Their　moral　capacities　are　equally　stunted。　Wherever　the　sphere　of　action　of　human　beings　is　artificially　circumscribed；　their　sentiments　are　narrowed　and　dwarfed　in　the　same　proportion。　The　food　of　feeling　is　action：　even　domestic　affection　lives　upon　voluntary　good　offices。　Let　a　person　have　nothing　to　do　for　his　country；　and　he　will　not　care　for　it。　It　has　been　said　of　old；　that　in　a　despotism　there　is　at　most　but　one　patriot；　the　despot　himself；　and　the　saying　rests　on　a　just　appreciation　of　the　effects　of　absolute　subjection；　even　to　a　good　and　wise　master。　Religion　remains：　and　here　at　least；　it　may　be　thought；　is　an　agency　that　may　be　relied　on　for　lifting　men's　eyes　and　minds　above　the　dust　at　their　feet。　But　religion；　even　supposing　it　to　escape　perversion　for　the　purposes　of　despotism；　ceases　in　these　circumstances　to　be　a　social　conc