representative government-第9章

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ne　of　universal　selfishness。　To　which　we　may　answer；　that　whenever　it　ceases　to　be　true　that　mankind；　as　a　rule；　prefer　themselves　to　others；　and　those　nearest　to　them　to　those　more　remote；　from　that　moment　Communism　is　not　only　practicable；　but　the　only　defensible　form　of　society；　and　will；　when　that　time　arrives；　be　assuredly　carried　into　effect。　For　my　own　part；　not　believing　in　universal　selfishness；　I　have　no　difficulty　in　admitting　that　Communism　would　even　now　be　practicable　among　the　elite　of　mankind；　and　may　become　so　among　the　rest。　But　as　this　opinion　is　anything　but　popular　with　those　defenders　of　existing　institutions　who　find　fault　with　the　doctrine　of　the　general　predominance　of　self…interest；　I　am　inclined　to　think　they　do　in　reality　believe　that　most　men　consider　themselves　before　other　people。　It　is　not；　however；　necessary　to　affirm　even　thus　much　in　order　to　support　the　claim　of　all　to　participate　in　the　sovereign　power。　We　need　not　suppose　that　when　power　resides　in　an　exclusive　class；　that　class　will　knowingly　and　deliberately　sacrifice　the　other　classes　to　themselves：　it　suffices　that；　in　the　absence　of　its　natural　defenders；　the　interest　of　the　excluded　is　always　in　danger　of　being　overlooked；　and；　when　looked　at；　is　seen　with　very　different　eyes　from　those　of　the　persons　whom　it　directly　concerns。　　　In　this　country；　for　example；　what　are　called　the　working　classes　may　be　considered　as　excluded　from　all　direct　participation　in　the　government。　I　do　not　believe　that　the　classes　who　do　participate　in　it　have　in　general　any　intention　of　sacrificing　the　working　classes　to　themselves。　They　once　had　that　intention；　witness　the　persevering　attempts　so　long　made　to　keep　down　wages　by　law。　But　in　the　present　day　their　ordinary　disposition　is　the　very　opposite：　they　willingly　make　considerable　sacrifices；　especially　of　their　pecuniary　interest；　for　the　benefit　of　the　working　classes；　and　err　rather　by　too　lavish　and　indiscriminating　beneficence；　nor　do　I　believe　that　any　rulers　in　history　have　been　actuated　by　a　more　sincere　desire　to　do　their　duty　towards　the　poorer　portion　of　their　countrymen。　Yet　does　Parliament；　or　almost　any　of　the　members　composing　it；　ever　for　an　instant　look　at　any　question　with　the　eyes　of　a　working　man？　When　a　subject　arises　in　which　the　labourers　as　such　have　an　interest；　is　it　regarded　from　any　point　of　view　but　that　of　the　employers　of　labour？　I　do　not　say　that　the　working　men's　view　of　these　questions　is　in　general　nearer　to　the　truth　than　the　other：　but　it　is　sometimes　quite　as　near；　and　in　any　case　it　ought　to　be　respectfully　listened　to；　instead　of　being；　as　it　is；　not　merely　turned　away　from；　but　ignored。　On　the　question　of　strikes；　for　instance；　it　is　doubtful　if　there　is　so　much　as　one　among　the　leading　members　of　either　House　who　is　not　firmly　convinced　that　the　reason　of　the　matter　is　unqualifiedly　on　the　side　of　the　masters；　and　that　the　men's　view　of　it　is　simply　absurd。　Those　who　have　studied　the　question　know　well　how　far　this　is　from　being　the　case；　and　in　how　different；　and　how　infinitely　less　superficial　a　manner　the　point　would　have　to　be　argued；　if　the　classes　who　strike　were　able　to　make　themselves　heard　in　Parliament。　　　It　is　an　adherent　condition　of　human　affairs　that　no　intention；　however　sincere；　of　protecting　the　interests　of　others　can　make　it　safe　or　salutary　to　tie　up　their　own　hands。　Still　more　obviously　true　is　it；　that　by　their　own　hands　only　can　any　positive　and　durable　improvement　of　their　circumstances　in　life　be　worked　out。　Through　the　joint　influence　of　these　two　principles；　all　free　communities　have　both　been　more　exempt　from　social　injustice　and　crime；　and　have　attained　more　brilliant　prosperity；　than　any　others；　or　than　they　themselves　after　they　lost　their　freedom。　Contrast　the　free　states　of　the　world；　while　their　freedom　lasted；　with　the　cotemporary　subjects　of　monarchical　or　oligarchical　despotism：　the　Greek　cities　with　the　Persian　satrapies；　the　Italian　republics　and　the　free　towns　of　Flanders　and　Germany；　with　the　feudal　monarchies　of　Europe；　Switzerland；　Holland；　and　England；　with　Austria　or　anterevolutionary　France。　Their　superior　prosperity　was　too　obvious　ever　to　have　been　gainsaid：　while　their　superiority　in　good　government　and　social　relations　is　proved　by　the　prosperity；　and　is　manifest　besides　in　every　page　of　history。　If　we　compare；　not　one　age　with　another；　but　the　different　governments　which　co…existed　in　the　same　age；　no　amount　of　disorder　which　exaggeration　itself　can　pretend　to　have　existed　amidst　the　publicity　of　the　free　states　can　be　compared　for　a　moment　with　the　contemptuous　trampling　upon　the　mass　of　the　people　which　pervaded　the　whole　life　of　the　monarchical　countries；　or　the　disgusting　individual　tyranny　which　was　of　more　than　daily　occurrence　under　the　systems　of　plunder　which　they　called　fiscal　arrangements；　and　in　the　secrecy　of　their　frightful　courts　of　justice。　　　It　must　be　acknowledged　that　the　benefits　of　freedom；　so　far　as　they　have　hitherto　been　enjoyed；　were　obtained　by　the　extension　of　its　privileges　to　a　part　only　of　the　community；　and　that　a　government　in　which　they　are　extended　impartially　to　all　is　a　desideratum　still　unrealised。　But　though　every　approach　to　this　has　an　independent　value；　and　in　many　cases　more　than　an　approach　could　not；　in　the　existing　state　of　general　improvement；　be　made；　the　participation　of　all　in　these　benefits　is　the　ideally　perfect　conception　of　free　government。　In　proportion　as　any；　no　matter　who；　are　excluded　from　it；　the　interests　of　the　excluded　are　left　without　the　guarantee　accorded　to　the　rest；　and　they　themselves　have　less　scope　and　encouragement　than　they　might　otherwise　have　to　that　exertion　of　their　energies　for　the　good　of　themselves　and　of　the　community；　to　which　the　general　prosperity　is　always　proportioned。　　　Thus　stands　the　case　as　regards　present　well…being；　the　good　management　of　the　affairs　of　the　existing　generation。　If　we　now　pass　to　the　influence　of　the　form　of　government　upon　character；　we　shall　find　the　superiority　of　popular　government　over　every　other　to　be；　if　possible；　still　more　decided　and　indisputable。　　　This　question　really　depends　upon　a　still　more　fundamental　one；　viz。；　which　of　two　common　types　of　character；　for　the　general　good　of　humanity；　it　is　most　desirable　should　predominate…　the　active；　or　the　passive　type；　that　which　struggles　against　evils；　or　that　which　endures　them；　that　which　bends　to　circumstances；　or　that　which　endeavours　to　make　circumstances　bend　to　itself。　　　The　commonplaces　of　moralists；　and　the　general　sympathies　of　mankind；　are　in　favour　of　the　passive　type。　Energetic　characters　may　be　admired；　but　the　acquiescent　and　submissive　are　those　which　most　men　personally　prefer。　The　passiveness　of　our　neighbours　increases　our　sense　of　security；　and　plays　into　the　hands　of　our　wilfulness。　Passive　characters；　if　we　do　not　happen　to　need　their　activity；　seem　an　obstruction　the　less　in　our　own　path。　A　contented　character　is　not　a　dangerous　rival。　Yet　nothing　is　more　certain　than　that　improvement　in　human　affairs　is　wholly　the　work　of　the　uncontented　characters；　and；　moreover；　that　it　is　much　easier　for　an　active　mind　to　acquire　the　virtues　of　patience　than　for　a　passive　one　to　assume　those　of　energy。　　　Of　the　three　varieties　of　mental　excellence；　intellectual；　practical；　and　moral；　there　never　could　be　any　doubt　in　regard　to　the　first　two　which　side　had　the　advantage。　All　intellectual　superiority　is　the　fruit　of　active　effort。　Enterprise；　the　desire　to　keep　moving；　to　be　trying　and　accomplishing　new　things　for　our　own　benefit　or　that　of　others；　is　the　parent　even　of　speculative；　and　much　more　of　practical；　talent。　The　intellectual　culture　compatible　with　the　other　type　is　of　that　feeble　and　vague　description　which　belongs　to　a　mind　that　stops　at　amusement；　or　at　simple　contemplation。　The　test　of　real　and　vigourous　thinking；　the　thinking　which　ascertains　truths　instead　of　dreaming　dreams；　is　successful　application　to　practice。　Where　that　purpose　does　not　exist；　to　give　definiteness；　precision；　and　an　intelligible　meaning　to　thought；　it　generates　nothing　better　than　the　mystical　metaphysics　of　the　Pythagoreans　or　the　Vedas。　With　respect　to　practical　improvement；　the　case　is　still　more　evident。　The　character　which　improves　human　life　is　that　which　struggles　with　natural　powers　and　tendencies；　not　that　which　gives　way　to　them。　The　self…benefiting　qualities　are　all　on　the　side　of　the　active　and　energetic　character：　and　the　habits　and　conduct　which　promote　the　advantage　of　each　individual　member　of　the　community　must　be　at　least　a　part　of　those　which　conduce　most　in　the　end　to　the　advancement　of　the　community　as　a　whole。　　　But　on　the　point　of　moral　preferability；　there　seems　at　first　sight　to　be　room　for　doubt。　I　am　not　referring　to　the　religious　feeling　which　has　so　generally　existed　in　favour　of　the　inactive　character；　as　being　more　in　harmony　with　the　submission　due　to　the　divine　will。　Christianity　as　well　as　other　religions　has　fostered　this　sentiment；　but　it　is　the　prerogative　of　Christianity；　as　regards　this　and　many　other　perversions；　that　it　is　able　to　throw　them　off。　Abstractedly　from　religious　considerations；　a　passive　character；　which　yields　to　obstacles　instead　of　striving　to　overcome　them；　may　not　indeed　be　very　useful　to　others；　no　more　than　to　itself；　but　it　might　be　expected　to　be　at　least　inoffensive。　Contentment　is　always　counted　among　the　moral　virtues。　But　it　is　a　complete　error　to　suppose　that　contentment　is　necessarily　or　naturally　attendant　on　passivity　of　character；　and　useless　it　is；　the　moral　consequences　are　mischievous。　Where　there　exists　a　desire　for　advantages　not　possessed；　the　mind　which　does　not　potentially　possess　them　by　means　of　its　own　energies　is　apt　to　look　with　hatred　and　malice　on　those　who　do。　The　person　bestirring　himself　with　hopeful　prospects　to　improve　his　circumstances　is　the　one　who　feels　good…will　towards　others　engaged　in；　or　who　have　succeeded　in；　the　same　pursuit。　And　where　the　majority　are　so　engaged；　those　who　do　not　attain　the　object　have　had　the　tone　given　to　their　feelings　by　the　general　habit　of　the　country；　and　ascribe　their　failure　to　want　of　effort　or　opportunity；　or　to　their　personal　ill　luck。　But　those　who；　while　desiring　what　others　possess；　put　no　energy　into　striving　for　it；　are　either　incessantly　grumbling　that　fortune　does　not　do　for　them　what　they　do　not　attempt　to　do　for　themselves；　or　overflowing　with　envy　and　ill…will　towards　those　who　possess　what　they　would　like　to　have。　　　In　proportion　as　success　in　life　is　seen　or　believed　to　be　the　fruit　of　fatality　or　accident；　and　not　of　exertion；　in　that　same　ratio　does　envy　develop　itself　as　a　point　of　national　character。　The　most　envious　of　all　mankind　are　the　Orientals。　In　Oriental　moralists；　in　Oriental　tales；　the　envious　man　is　remarkably　prominent。　In　real　life；　he　is　the　terror　of　all　who　possess　anything　desirable；　be　it　a　palace；　a　handsome　child；　or　even　good　health　and　spirits：　the　supposed　effect　of　his　mere　look　constitutes　the　all…pervading　superstition　of　the　evil　eye。　Next　to　Orientals　in　envy；　as　in　activity；　are　some　of　the　Southern　Europeans。　The　Spaniards　pursued　all　their　great　men　with　it；　embittered　their　lives；　and　generally　su