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The Psychology of Revolution
Gustave le Bon
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION。 THE REVISION OF HISTORY
PART I
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ELEMENTS OF REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS
BOOK I
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF REVOLUTIONS
CHAPTER I。 SCIENTIFIC AND POLITICAL REVOLUTIONS
1。 Classification of Revolutions
2。 Scientific Revolutions
3。 Political Revolutions
4。 The results of Political Revolutions
CHAPTER II。 RELIGIOUS REVOLUTIONS
1。 The importance of the study of Religious Revolutions in
respect of the comprehension of the great Political
Revolutions
2。 The beginnings of the Reformation and its first
disciples
3。 Rational value of the doctrines of the Reformation
4。 Propagation of the Reformation
5。 Conflict between different religious beliefs。 The
impossibility of tolerance
6。 The results of Religious Revolutions
CHAPTER III。 THE ACTION OF GOVERNMENTS IN REVOLUTIONS
1。 The feeble resistance of Governments in time of
Revolution
2。 How the resistance of Governments may overcome
Revolution
3。 Revolutions effected by Governments。 Examples： China；
Turkey； &c
4。 Social elements which survive the changes of Government
after Revolution
CHAPTER IV。 THE PART PLAYED BY THE PEOPLE IN REVOLUTIONS
1。 The stability and malleability Of the national mind
2。 How the People regards Revolution
3。 The supposed part of the People during Revolution
4。 The popular entity and its constituent elements
BOOK II
THE FORMS OF MENTALITY PREVALENT DURING REVOLUTION
CHAPTER I。 INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS OF CHARACTER IN TIME OF
REVOLUTION
1。 Transformations of Personality
2。 Elements of character predominant in time of Revolution
CHAPTER II。 THE MYSTIC MENTALITY AND THE JACOBIN MENTALITY
1。 Classification of mentalities predominant in time of
Revolution
2。 The Mystic Mentality
3。 The Jacobin Mentality
CHAPTER III。 THE REVOLUTIONARY AND CRIMINAL MENTALITIES
1。 The Revolutionary Mentality
2。 The Criminal Mentality
CHAPTER IV。 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF REVOLUTIONARY CROWDS
1。 General characteristics of the crowd
2。 How the stability of the racial mind limits the
oscillations of the mind of the crowd
3。 The role of the leader in Revolutionary Movements
CHAPTER V。 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE REVOLUTIONARY ASSEMBLIES
1。 Psychological characteristics of the great Revolutionary
Assemblies
2。 The Psychology of the Revolutionary Clubs
3。 A suggested explanation of the progressive exaggeration
of sentiments in assemblies
PART II
BOOK I
THE ORIGINS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
CHAPTER 1。 THE OPINIONS OF HISTORIANS CONCERNING THE FRENCH
REVOLUTION
1。 The Historians of the Revolution
2。 The theory of Fatalism in respect of the Revolution
3。 The hesitation of recent Historians of the Revolution
4。 Impartiality in History
CHAPTER II。 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE ANCIEN REGIME
1。 The Absolute Monarchy and the Basis of the Ancien Regime
2。 The inconveniences of the Ancien Regime
3。 Life under the Ancien Regime
4。 Evolution of Monarchical feeling during the Revolution
CHAPTER III。 MENTAL ANARCHY AT THE TIME OF THE REVOLUTION
AND THE INFLUENCE ATTRIBUTED TO THE PHILOSOPHERS
1。 Origin and Propagation of Revolutionary Ideas
2。 The supposed influence of the Philosophers of the
eighteenth century upon the Genesis of the Revolution。
Their dislike of Democracy
3。 The philosophical ideas of the Bourgeoisie at the time of
the Revolution
CHAPTER IV。 PSYCHOLOGICAL ILLUSIONS RESPECTING THE FRENCH
REVOLUTION
1。 Illusions respecting Primitive Man； the return to the
State of Nature； and the Psychology of the People
2。 Illusions respecting the possibility of separating Man
from his Past and the power of Transformation attributed
to the Law
3。 Illusions respecting the Theoretical Value of the great
Revolutionary Principles
BOOK II
THE RATIONAL； AFFECTIVE； MYSTIC； AND COLLECTIVE INFLUENCES ACTIVE
DURING THE REVOLUTION
CHAPTER I。 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY
1。 Psychological influences active during the French
Revolution
2。 Dissolution of the Ancien Regime。 The assembling of
the States General
3。 The constituent Assembly
CHAPTER II。 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY
1。 Political events during the life of the Legislative
Assembly
2。 Mental characteristics of the Legislative Assembly
CHAPTER III。 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE CONVENTION
1。 The Legend of the Convention
2。 Results of the triumph of the Jacobin Religion
3。 Mental characteristics of the Convention
CHAPTER IV。 THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CONVENTION
1。 The activity of the Clubs and the Commune during the
Convention
2。 The Government of France during the Convention： the
Terror
3。 The End of the Convention。 The Beginnings of the
Directory
CHAPTER V。 INSTANCES OF REVOLUTIONARY VIOLENCE
1。 Psychological Causes of Revolutionary Violence
2。 The Revolutionary Tribunals
3。 The Terror in the Provinces
CHAPTER VI。 THE ARMIES OF THE REVOLUTION
1。 The Revolutionary Assemblies and the Armies
2。 The Struggle of Europe against the Revolution
3。 Psychological and Military Factors which determined the
success of the Revolutionary Armies
CHAPTER VII。 PSYCHOLOGY OF THE LEADERS OF THE REVOLUTION
1。 Mentality of the men of the Revolution。 The respective
influence of violent and feeble characters
2。 Psychology of the Commissaries or Representatives
‘‘on Mission''
3。 Danton and Robespierre
4。 Fouquier…Tinville； Marat； Billaud…Varenne； &c。
5。 The destiny of those Members of the Convention who
survived the Revolution
BOOK III
THE CONFLICT BETWEEN ANCESTRAL INFLUENCES AND REVOLUTIONARY
PRINCIPLES
CHAPTER I。 THE LAST CONVULSIONS OF ANARCHY。 THE DIRECTORY
1。 Psychology of the Directory
2。 Despotic Government of the Directory。 Recrudescence of
the Terror
3。 The Advent of Bonaparte
4。 Causes of the Duration of the Revolution
CHAPTER II。 THE RESTORATION OF ORDER。 THE CONSULAR REPUBLIC
1。 How the work of the Revolution was confirmed by the
Consulate
2。 The re…organisation of France by the Consulate
3。 Psychological elements which determined the success of
the work of the Consulate
CHAPTER III。 POLITICAL RESULTS OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN
TRADITIONS AND THE REVOLUTIONARY PRINCIPLES DURING THE
LAST CENTURY
1。 The psychological causes of the continued Revolutionary
Movements to which France has been subject
2。 Summary of a century's Revolutionary Movements in France
PART III
THE RECENT EVOLUTION OF THE REVOLUTIONARY PRINCIPLES
CHAPTER I。 THE PROGRESS OF DEMOCRATIC BELIEFS SINCE THE
REVOLUTION
1。 Gradual propagation of Democratic Ideas after the
Revolution
2。 The unequal influence of the three fundamental principles
of the Revolution
3。 The Democracy of the ‘‘Intellectuals'' and Popular
Democracy
4。 Natural Inequalities and Democratic Equalisation
CHAPTER II。 THE RESULTS OF DEMOCRATIC EVOLUTION
1。 The influence upon social evolution of theories of no
rational value
2。 The Jacobin Spirit and the Mentality created by
Democratic Beliefs
3。 Universal Suffrage and its representatives
4。 The craving for Reforms
5。 Social distinctions in Democracies and Democratic Ideas
in various countries
CHAPTER III。 THE NEW FORMS OF DEMOCRATIC BELIEF
1。 The conflict between Capital and Labour
2。 The evolution of the Working Classes and the Syndicalist
Movement
3。 Why certain modern Democratic Governments are gradually
being transformed into Governments by Administrative
Castes
CONCLUSIONS
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF REVOLUTION
INTRODUCTION
THE REVISION OF HISTORY
The present age is not merely an epoch of discovery； it is also a
period of revision of the various elements of knowledge。 Having
recognised that there are no phenomena of which the first cause
is still accessible； science has resumed the examination of her
ancient certitudes； and has proved their fragility。 To…day she
sees her ancient principles vanishing one by one。 Mechanics is
losing its axioms； and matter； formerly the eternal substratum of
the worlds； becomes a simple aggregate of ephemeral forces in
transitory condensation。
Despite its conjectural side； by virtue of which it to some
extent escapes the severest form of criticism； history has not
been free from this universal revision。 There is no longer a
single one of its phases of which we can say that it is certainly
known。 What appeared to be definitely acquired is now once more
put in question。
Among the events whose study seemed completed was the French
Revolution。 Analysed by several generations of writers； one
might suppose it to be perfectly elucidated。 What new thing can
be said of it； except in modification of some of its details？
And yet its most positive defenders are beginning to hesitate in
their judgments。 Ancient evidence proves to be far from
impeccable。 The faith in dogmas once held sacred is shaken。 The
latest literature of the Revolution betrays these uncertainties。
Having related； men are more and more chary of drawing
conclusions。
Not only are the heroes of this great drama discussed without
indulgence； but thinkers are asking whether the new dispensation
which followed the ancien regime would not have established
itself naturally； without violence； in the course of progressive
civilisation。 The results obtained no longer seem in
correspondence either with their immediate cost or with the
remoter consequences which the Revolution evoked from the
possibilities of history。
Several causes have led to the revision of this tragic period。
Time has calmed passions； numerous documents have gradually
emerged from the archives； and the historian is learning to
interpret them independently。
But it is perhaps modern psychology that has most effectually
influenced our ideas； by enabling us more surely to read men and
the motives of their conduct。
Among those of its discoveries which are henceforth applicable to
history we must mention； above all； a more profound understanding
of ancestral influences； the laws which rule the actions of the
crowd； data relating t
