the psychology of revolution-第11章

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the　outsides　of　things　had　changed。



We　cannot　insist　further　here　on　the　limits　of　national

variability；　but　must　now　consider　the　influence　of　certain

affective　elements；　whose　development　during　revolution

contributes　to　modify　individual　or　collective　personalities。　　In

particular　I　will　mention　hatred；　fear；　ambition；　jealousy　or

envy；　vanity；　and　enthusiasm。　　We　observe　their　influence　during

several　of　the　upheavals　of　history；　notably　during　the　course　of

the　French　Revolution；　which　will　furnish　us　with　most　of　our

examples。



Hatred。The　hatred　of　persons；　institutions；　and　things　which

animated　the　men　of　the　Revolution　is　one　of　these　affective

phenomena　which　are　the　more　striking　the　more　one　studies　their

psychology。　　They　detested；　not　only　their　enemies；　but　the

members　of　their　own　party。　　‘‘If　one　were　to　accept

unreservedly；''　said　a　recent　writer；　‘‘the　judgments　which　they

expressed　of　one　another；　we　should　have　to　conclude　that　they

were　all　traitors　and　boasters；　all　incapable　and　corrupt；

all　assassins　or　tyrants。''　　We　know　with　what　hatred；　scarcely

appeased　by　the　death　of　their　enemies；　men　persecuted　the

Girondists；　Dantonists；　Hebertists；　Robespierrists；　&c。



One　of　the　chief　causes　of　this　feeling　resided　in　the　fact　that

these　furious　sectaries；　being　apostles　in　possession　of　the

absolute　verity；　were　unable；　like　all　believers；　to　tolerate　the

sight　of　infidels。　　A　mystic　or　sentimental　certitude　is　always

accompanied　by　the　need　of　forcing　itself　on　others；　is　never

convinced；　and　does　not　shrink　from　wholesale　slaughter　when　it

has　the　power　to　commit　it。



If　the　hatreds　that　divided　the　men　of　the　Revolution　had　been　of

rational　origin　they　would　not　have　lasted　long；　but；　arising

from　affective　and　mystic　factors；　men　could　neither　forget　nor

forgive。　　Their　sources　being　identical　in　the　different　parties；

they　manifested　themselves　on　every　hand　with　identical　violence。



It　has　been　proved；　by　means　of　documents；　that　the　Girondists

were　no　less　sanguinary　than　the　Montagnards。　　They　were　the

first　to　declare；　with　Petion；　that　the　vanquished　parties

should　perish。　　They　also；　according　to　M。　Aulard；　attempted　to

justify　the　massacres　of　September。　　The　Terror　must　not　be

considered　simply　as　a　means　of　defence；　but　as　the　general

process　of　destruction　to　which　triumphant　believers　have　always

treated　their　detested　enemies。　　Men　who　can　put　up　with　the

greatest　divergence　of　ideas　cannot　tolerate　differences　of

belief。



In　religious　or　political　warfare　the　vanquished　can　hope　for　no

quarter。　　From　Sulla；　who　cut　the　throats　of　two　hundred　senators

and　five　or　six　thousand　Romans；　to　the　men　who　suppressed　the

Commune；　and　shot　down　more　than　twenty　thousand　after

their　victory；　this　bloody　law　has　never　failed。　　Proved　over　and

over　again　in　the　past；　it　will　doubtless　be　so　in　the　future。



The　hatreds　of　the　Revolution　did　not　arise　entirely　from

divergence　of　belief。　　Other　sentimentsenvy；　ambition；　and

self…lovealso　engendered　them。　　The　rivalry　of　individuals

aspiring　to　power　led　the　chiefs　of　the　various　groups　in

succession　to　the　scaffold。



We　must　remember；　moreover；　that　the　need　of　division　and　the

hatred　resulting　therefrom　seem　to　be　constituent　elements　of　the

Latin　mind。　　They　cost　our　Gaulish　ancestors　their　independence；

and　had　already　struck　Caesar。



‘‘No　city；''　he　said；　‘‘but　was　divided　into　two　factions；　no

canton；　no　village；　no　house　in　which　the　spirit　of　party　did　not

breathe。　　It　was　very　rarely　that　a　year　went　by　without　a　city

taking　up　arms　to　attack　or　repulse　its　neighbours。''



As　man　has　only　recently　entered　upon　the　age　of　knowledge；　and

has　always　hitherto　been　guided　by　sentiments　and　beliefs；　we　may

conceive　the　vast　importance　of　hatred　as　a　factor　of　his

history。



Commandant　Colin；　professor　at　the　College　of　War；　remarks　in　the

following　terms　on　the　importance　of　this　feeling　during　certain

wars：



‘‘In　war　more　than　at　any　other　time　there　is　no　better　inspiring

force　than　hatred；　it　was　hatred　that　made　Blucher　victorious

over　Napoleon。　　Analyse　the　most　wonderful　manoeuvres；　the　most

decisive　operations；　and　if　they　are　not　the　work　of　an

exceptional　man；　a　Frederick　or　a　Napoleon；　you　will　find　they

are　inspired　by　passion　more　than　by　calculation。　　What

would　the　war　of　1870　have　been　without　the　hatred　which　we　bore

the　Germans？''



The　writer　might　have　added　that　the　intense　hatred　of　the

Japanese　for　the　Russians；　who　had　so　humiliated　them；　might　be

classed　among　the　causes　of　their　success。　　The　Russian　soldiers；

ignorant　of　the　very　existence　of　the　Japanese；　had　no　animosity

against　them；　which　was　one　of　the　reasons　of　their　failure。



There　was　assuredly　a　good　deal　of　talk　of　fraternity　at　the　time

of　the　Revolution；　and　there　is　even　more　to…day。　　Pacificism；

humanitarianism；　and　solidarity　have　become　catchwords　of　the

advanced　parties；　but　we　know　how　profound　are　the　hatreds

concealed　beneath　these　terms；　and　what　dangers　overhang　our

modern　society。

　

Fear。Fear　plays　almost　as　large　a　part　in　revolutions　as

hatred。　　During　the　French　Revolution　there　were　many　examples　of

great　individual　courage　and　many　exhibitions　of　collective

cowardice。



Facing　the　scaffold；　the　men　of　the　Convention　were　always　brave

in　the　extreme；　but　before　the　threats　of　the　rioters　who　invaded

the　Assembly　they　constantly　exhibited　an　excessive

pusillanimity；　obeying　the　most　absurd　injunctions；　as　we　shall

see　if　we　re…read　the　history　of　the　revolutionary　Assemblies。



All　the　forms　of　fear　were　observed　at　this　period。　　One　of　the

most　widespread　was　the　fear　of　appearing　moderate。　　Members　of

the　Assemblies；　public　prosecutors；　representatives　‘‘on

mission；''　judges　of　the　revolutionary　tribunals；　&c。；　all　sought

to　appear　more　advanced　than　their　rivals。　　Fear　was　one　of　the

principal　elements　of　the　crimes　committed　at　this　period。　

If　by　some　miracle　it　could　have　been　eliminated　from　the

revolutionary　Assemblies；　their　conduct　would　have　been　quite

other　than　it　was；　and　the　Revolution　itself　would　have　taken　a

very　different　direction。



Ambition；　Envy；　Vanity；　&c。In　normal　times　the　influence　of

these　various　affective　elements　is　forcibly　contained　by　social

necessities。　　Ambition；　for　instance；　is　necessarily　limited　in　a

hierarchical　form　of　society。　　Although　the　soldier　does

sometimes　become　a　general；　it　is　only　after　a　long　term　of

service。　　In　time　of　revolution；　on　the　other　hand；　there　is　no

need　to　wait。　　Every　one　may　reach　the　upper　ranks　almost

immediately；　so　that　all　ambitions　are　violently　aroused。　　The

humblest　man　believes　himself　fitted　for　the　highest　employments；

and　by　this　very　fact　his　vanity　grows　out　of　all　measure。



All　the　passions　being　more　or　less　aroused；　including　ambition

and　vanity；　we　see　the　development　of　jealousy　and　envy　of　those

who　have　succeeded　more　quickly　than　others。



The　effect　of　jealousy；　always　important　in　times　of　revolution；

was　especially　so　during　the　great　French　Revolution。　　Jealousy

of　the　nobility　constituted　one　of　its　most　important　factors。　

The　middle　classes　had　increased　in　capacity　and　wealth；　to　the

point　of　surpassing　the　nobility。　　Although　they　mingled　with　the

nobles　more　and　more；　they　felt；　none　the　less；　that　they　were

held　at　a　distance；　and　this　they　keenly　resented。　　This　frame　of

mind　had　unconsciously　made　the　bourgeoisie　keen　supporters　of

the　philosophic　doctrine　of　equality。



Wounded　self…love　and　jealousy　were　thus　the　causes　of

hatreds　that　we　can　scarcely　conceive　today；　when　the　social

influence　of　the　nobility　is　so　small。　　Many　members　of　the

ConventionCarrier；　Marat；　and　othersremembered　with　anger

that　they　had　once　occupied　subordinate　positions　in　the

establishments　of　great　nobles。　　Mme。　Roland　was　never　able　to

forget　that；　when　she　and　her　mother　were　invited　to　the　house　of

a　great　lady　under　the　ancien　regime；　they　had　been　sent　to

dine　in　the　servants'　quarters。



The　philosopher　Rivarol　has　very　well　described　in　the　following

passage；　already　cited　by　Taine；　the　influence　of　wounded　self…

love　and　jealousy　upon　the　revolutionary　hatreds：



‘‘It　is　not；''　he　writes；　‘‘the　taxes；　nor　the　lettres　de

cachet；　nor　any　of　the　other　abuses　of　authority；　it　is　not　the

sins　of　the　intendants；　nor　the　long　and　ruinous　delays　of

justice；　that　has　most　angered　the　nation；　it　is　the　prejudices

of　the　nobility　for　which　it　has　exhibited　the　greatest　hatred。　

What　proves　this　clearly　is　the　fact　that　it　is　the　bourgeois；

the　men　of　letters；　the　men　of　money；　in　fact　all　those　who　are

jealous　of　the　nobility；　who　have　raised　the　poorer　inhabitants

of　the　cities　against　them；　and　the　peasants　in　the　country

districts。''



This　very　true　statement　partly　justifies　the　saying　of　Napoleon：



‘‘Vanity　made　the　Revolution；　liberty　was　only　the　pretext。''



Enthusiasm。The　enthusiasm　of　the　founders　of　the　Revolution

equalled　that　of　the　apostles　of　the　faith　of　Mohammed。　　And　it

was　really　a　religion　that　the　bourgeois　of　the　first　Assembly

thought　to　found。　　They　thought　to　have　destroyed　an　old

world；　and　to　have　built　a　new　one　upon　its　ruins。　　Never

did　illusion　more　seductive　fire　the　hearts　of　men。　　Equality　and

fraternity；　proclaimed　by　the　new　dogmas；　were　to　bring　the　reign

of　eternal　happiness　to　all　the　peoples。　　Man　had　broken　for　ever

with　a　past　of　barbarity　and　darkness。　　The　regenerated　world

would　in　future　be　illuminated　by　the　lucid　radiance　of　pure

reason。　　On　all　hands　the　most　brilliant　oratorical　formulae

saluted　the　expected　dawn。



That　this　enthusiasm　was　so　soon　replaced　by　violence　was　due　to

the　fact　that　the　awakening　was　speedy　and　terrible。　　One　can

readily　conceive　the　indignant　fury　with　which　the　apostles　of

the　Revolution　attacked　the　daily　obstacles　opposed　to　the

realisation　of　their　dreams。　　They　had　sought　to　reject　the　past；

to　forget　tradition；　to　make　man　over　again。　　But　the　past

reappeared　incessantly；　and　men　refused　to　change。　　The

reformers；　checked　in　their　onward　march；　would　not　give　in。　

They　sought　to　impose　by　force　a　dictatorship　which　speedily　made

men　regret　the　system　abolished；　and　finally　led　to　its　return。



It　is　to　be　remarked　that　although　the　enthusiasm　of　the　first

days　did　not　last　in　the　revolutionary　Assemblies；　it　survived

very　much　longer　in　the　armies；　and　constituted　their　chief

strength。　　To　tell　the　truth；　the　armies　of　the　Revolution　were

republican　long　before　France　became　so；　and　remained　republican

long　after　France　had　ceased　to　be　so。



The　variations　of　character　considered　in　this　chapter；　being

conditioned　by　certain　common　aspirations　and　identical　changes

of　environment；　finally