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С˵£º the psychology of revolution ×ÖÊý£º ÿҳ3500×Ö

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all¡¡societies£»¡¡we¡¡must¡¡add¡¡the¡¡class¡¡of¡¡semi¡­criminals¡£¡¡

Wrongdoers¡¡on¡¡occasion£»¡¡they¡¡never¡¡rebel¡¡so¡¡long¡¡as¡¡the¡¡fear¡¡of

the¡¡established¡¡order¡¡restrains¡¡them£»¡¡but¡¡as¡¡soon¡¡as¡¡it¡¡weakens

they¡¡enrol¡¡themselves¡¡in¡¡the¡¡army¡¡of¡¡revolution¡£



These¡¡two¡¡categorieshabitual¡¡and¡¡occasional¡¡criminalsform¡¡an

army¡¡of¡¡disorder¡¡which¡¡is¡¡fit¡¡for¡¡nothing¡¡but¡¡the¡¡creation¡¡of

disorder¡£¡¡¡¡All¡¡the¡¡revolutionaries£»¡¡all¡¡the¡¡founders¡¡of¡¡religious

or¡¡political¡¡leagues£»¡¡have¡¡constantly¡¡counted¡¡on¡¡their¡¡support¡£



We¡¡have¡¡already¡¡stated¡¡that¡¡this¡¡population£»¡¡with¡¡its¡¡criminal

mentality£»¡¡exercised¡¡a¡¡considerable¡¡influence¡¡during¡¡the¡¡French

Revolution¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡always¡¡figured¡¡in¡¡the¡¡front¡¡rank¡¡of¡¡the¡¡riots

which¡¡occurred¡¡almost¡¡daily¡£¡¡¡¡Certain¡¡historians¡¡have¡¡spoken¡¡with

respect¡¡and¡¡emotion¡¡of¡¡the¡¡way¡¡in¡¡which¡¡the¡¡sovereign¡¡people

enforced¡¡its¡¡will¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡Convention£»¡¡invading¡¡the¡¡hall¡¡armed

with¡¡pikes£»¡¡the¡¡points¡¡of¡¡which¡¡were¡¡sometimes¡¡decorated¡¡with

newly¡¡severed¡¡heads¡£¡¡¡¡If¡¡we¡¡analyse¡¡the¡¡elements¡¡composing¡¡the

pretended¡¡delegations¡¡of¡¡the¡¡sovereign¡¡people£»¡¡we¡¡shall¡¡find

that£»¡¡apart¡¡from¡¡a¡¡small¡¡number¡¡of¡¡simple¡¡souls¡¡who¡¡submitted¡¡to

the¡¡impulses¡¡of¡¡the¡¡leaders£»¡¡the¡¡mass¡¡was¡¡almost¡¡entirely¡¡formed

of¡¡the¡¡bandits¡¡of¡¡whom¡¡I¡¡have¡¡been¡¡speaking¡£¡¡¡¡To¡¡them¡¡were¡¡due

the¡¡innumerable¡¡murders¡¡of¡¡which¡¡the¡¡massacres¡¡of¡¡September¡¡and

the¡¡killing¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Princesse¡¡de¡¡Lamballe¡¡were¡¡merely¡¡typical¡£



They¡¡terrorised¡¡all¡¡the¡¡great¡¡Assemblies£»¡¡from¡¡the¡¡Constituent

Assembly¡¡to¡¡the¡¡Convention£»¡¡and¡¡for¡¡ten¡¡years¡¡they¡¡helped¡¡to

ravage¡¡France¡£¡¡¡¡If¡¡by¡¡some¡¡miracle¡¡this¡¡army¡¡of¡¡criminals¡¡could

have¡¡been¡¡eliminated£»¡¡the¡¡progress¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Revolution¡¡would¡¡have

been¡¡very¡¡different¡£¡¡¡¡They¡¡stained¡¡it¡¡with¡¡blood¡¡from¡¡its¡¡dawn¡¡to

its¡¡decline¡£¡¡¡¡Reason¡¡could¡¡do¡¡nothing¡¡with¡¡them¡¡but¡¡they¡¡could¡¡do

much¡¡against¡¡reason¡£







CHAPTER¡¡IV



THE¡¡PSYCHOLOGY¡¡OF¡¡REVOLUTIONARY¡¡CROWDS



1¡£¡¡¡¡General¡¡Characteristics¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Crowd¡£



Whatever¡¡their¡¡origin£»¡¡revolutions¡¡do¡¡not¡¡produce¡¡their¡¡full

effects¡¡until¡¡they¡¡have¡¡penetrated¡¡the¡¡soul¡¡of¡¡the¡¡multitude¡£¡¡

They¡¡therefore¡¡represent¡¡a¡¡consequence¡¡of¡¡the¡¡psychology¡¡of

crowds¡£



Although¡¡I¡¡have¡¡studied¡¡collective¡¡psychology¡¡at¡¡length¡¡in

another¡¡volume£»¡¡I¡¡must¡¡here¡¡recall¡¡its¡¡principal¡¡laws¡£



Man£»¡¡as¡¡part¡¡of¡¡a¡¡multitude£»¡¡is¡¡a¡¡very¡¡different¡¡being¡¡from¡¡the

same¡¡man¡¡as¡¡an¡¡isolated¡¡individual¡£¡¡¡¡His¡¡conscious¡¡individuality

vanishes¡¡in¡¡the¡¡unconscious¡¡personality¡¡of¡¡the¡¡crowd¡£



Material¡¡contact¡¡is¡¡not¡¡absolutely¡¡necessary¡¡to¡¡produce¡¡in¡¡the

individual¡¡the¡¡mentality¡¡of¡¡the¡¡crowd¡£¡¡¡¡Common¡¡passions¡¡and

sentiments£»¡¡provoked¡¡by¡¡certain¡¡events£»¡¡are¡¡often¡¡sufficient¡¡to

create¡¡it¡£



The¡¡collective¡¡mind£»¡¡momentarily¡¡formed£»¡¡represents¡¡a¡¡very

special¡¡kind¡¡of¡¡aggregate¡£¡¡¡¡Its¡¡chief¡¡peculiarity¡¡is¡¡that¡¡it¡¡is

entirely¡¡dominated¡¡by¡¡unconscious¡¡elements£»¡¡and¡¡is¡¡subject¡¡to¡¡a

peculiar¡¡collective¡¡logic¡£



Among¡¡the¡¡other¡¡characteristics¡¡of¡¡crowds£»¡¡we¡¡must¡¡note¡¡their

infinite¡¡credulity¡¡and¡¡exaggerated¡¡sensibility£»¡¡their¡¡short¡­

sightedness£»¡¡and¡¡their¡¡incapacity¡¡to¡¡respond¡¡to¡¡the¡¡influences¡¡of

reason¡£¡¡¡¡Affirmation£»¡¡contagion£»¡¡repetition£»¡¡and¡¡prestige

constitute¡¡almost¡¡the¡¡only¡¡means¡¡of¡¡persuading¡¡them¡£¡¡¡¡Reality¡¡and

experience¡¡have¡¡no¡¡effect¡¡upon¡¡them¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡multitude¡¡will¡¡admit

anything£»¡¡nothing¡¡is¡¡impossible¡¡in¡¡the¡¡eyes¡¡of¡¡the¡¡crowd¡£



By¡¡reason¡¡of¡¡the¡¡extreme¡¡sensibility¡¡of¡¡crowds£»¡¡their¡¡sentiments£»

good¡¡or¡¡bad£»¡¡are¡¡always¡¡exaggerated¡£¡¡¡¡This¡¡exaggeration¡¡increases

still¡¡further¡¡in¡¡times¡¡of¡¡revolution¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡least¡¡excitement¡¡will

then¡¡lead¡¡the¡¡multitude¡¡to¡¡act¡¡with¡¡the¡¡utmost¡¡fury¡£¡¡¡¡Their

credulity£»¡¡so¡¡great¡¡even¡¡in¡¡the¡¡normal¡¡state£»¡¡is¡¡still¡¡further

increased£»¡¡the¡¡most¡¡improbable¡¡statements¡¡are¡¡accepted¡£¡¡¡¡Arthur

Young¡¡relates¡¡that¡¡when¡¡he¡¡visited¡¡the¡¡springs¡¡near¡¡Clermont£»¡¡at

the¡¡time¡¡of¡¡the¡¡French¡¡Revolution£»¡¡his¡¡guide¡¡was¡¡stopped¡¡by¡¡the

people£»¡¡who¡¡were¡¡persuaded¡¡that¡¡he¡¡had¡¡come¡¡by¡¡order¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Queen

to¡¡mine¡¡and¡¡blow¡¡up¡¡the¡¡town¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡most¡¡horrible¡¡tales¡¡concerning

the¡¡Royal¡¡Family¡¡were¡¡circulated£»¡¡depicting¡¡it¡¡as¡¡a¡¡nest¡¡of

ghouls¡¡and¡¡vampires¡£



These¡¡various¡¡characteristics¡¡show¡¡that¡¡man¡¡in¡¡the¡¡crowd¡¡descends

to¡¡a¡¡very¡¡low¡¡degree¡¡in¡¡the¡¡scale¡¡of¡¡civilisation¡£¡¡¡¡He¡¡becomes¡¡a

savage£»¡¡with¡¡all¡¡a¡¡savage's¡¡faults¡¡and¡¡qualities£»¡¡with¡¡all¡¡his

momentary¡¡violence£»¡¡enthusiasm£»¡¡and¡¡heroism¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡the¡¡intellectual

domain¡¡a¡¡crowd¡¡is¡¡always¡¡inferior¡¡to¡¡the¡¡isolated¡¡unit¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡the

moral¡¡and¡¡sentimental¡¡domain¡¡it¡¡may¡¡be¡¡his¡¡superior¡£¡¡¡¡A¡¡crowd

will¡¡commit¡¡a¡¡crime¡¡as¡¡readily¡¡as¡¡an¡¡act¡¡of¡¡abnegation¡£



Personal¡¡characteristics¡¡vanish¡¡in¡¡the¡¡crowd£»¡¡which¡¡exerts¡¡an

extraordinary¡¡influence¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡individuals¡¡which¡¡form¡¡it¡£¡¡¡¡The

miser¡¡becomes¡¡generous£»¡¡the¡¡sceptic¡¡a¡¡believer£»¡¡the¡¡honest

man¡¡a¡¡criminal£»¡¡the¡¡coward¡¡a¡¡hero¡£¡¡¡¡Examples¡¡of¡¡such

transformations¡¡abounded¡¡during¡¡the¡¡great¡¡Revolution¡£



As¡¡part¡¡of¡¡a¡¡jury¡¡or¡¡a¡¡parliament£»¡¡the¡¡collective¡¡man¡¡renders

verdicts¡¡or¡¡passes¡¡laws¡¡of¡¡which¡¡he¡¡would¡¡never¡¡have¡¡dreamed¡¡in

his¡¡isolated¡¡condition¡£



One¡¡of¡¡the¡¡most¡¡notable¡¡consequences¡¡of¡¡the¡¡influence¡¡of¡¡a

collectivity¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡individuals¡¡who¡¡compose¡¡it¡¡is¡¡the

unification¡¡of¡¡their¡¡sentiments¡¡and¡¡wills¡£¡¡¡¡This¡¡psychological

unity¡¡confers¡¡a¡¡remarkable¡¡force¡¡upon¡¡crowds¡£



The¡¡formation¡¡of¡¡such¡¡a¡¡mental¡¡unity¡¡results¡¡chiefly¡¡from¡¡the

fact¡¡that¡¡in¡¡a¡¡crowd¡¡gestures¡¡and¡¡actions¡¡are¡¡extremely

contagious¡£¡¡¡¡Acclamations¡¡of¡¡hatred£»¡¡fury£»¡¡or¡¡love¡¡are

immediately¡¡approved¡¡and¡¡repeated¡£



What¡¡is¡¡the¡¡origin¡¡of¡¡these¡¡common¡¡sentiments£»¡¡this¡¡common¡¡will£¿¡¡

They¡¡are¡¡propagated¡¡by¡¡contagion£»¡¡but¡¡a¡¡point¡¡of¡¡departure¡¡is

necessary¡¡before¡¡this¡¡contagion¡¡can¡¡take¡¡effect¡£¡¡¡¡Without¡¡a

leader¡¡the¡¡crowd¡¡is¡¡an¡¡amorphous¡¡entity¡¡incapable¡¡of¡¡action¡£



A¡¡knowledge¡¡of¡¡the¡¡laws¡¡relating¡¡to¡¡the¡¡psychology¡¡of¡¡crowds¡¡is

indispensable¡¡to¡¡the¡¡interpretation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡elements¡¡of¡¡our

Revolution£»¡¡and¡¡to¡¡a¡¡comprehension¡¡of¡¡the¡¡conduct¡¡of

revolutionary¡¡assemblies£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡singular¡¡transformations¡¡of¡¡the

individuals¡¡who¡¡form¡¡part¡¡of¡¡them¡£¡¡¡¡Pushed¡¡by¡¡the¡¡unconscious

forces¡¡of¡¡the¡¡collective¡¡soul£»¡¡they¡¡more¡¡often¡¡than¡¡not¡¡say¡¡what

they¡¡did¡¡not¡¡intend£»¡¡and¡¡vote¡¡what¡¡they¡¡would¡¡not¡¡have¡¡wished¡¡to

vote¡£



Although¡¡the¡¡laws¡¡of¡¡collective¡¡psychology¡¡have¡¡sometimes¡¡been

divined¡¡instinctively¡¡by¡¡superior¡¡statesmen£»¡¡the¡¡majority¡¡of

Governments¡¡have¡¡not¡¡understood¡¡and¡¡do¡¡not¡¡understand

them¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡is¡¡because¡¡they¡¡do¡¡not¡¡understand¡¡them¡¡that¡¡so¡¡many¡¡of

them¡¡have¡¡fallen¡¡so¡¡easily¡£¡¡¡¡When¡¡we¡¡see¡¡the¡¡facility¡¡with¡¡which

certain¡¡Governments¡¡were¡¡overthrown¡¡by¡¡an¡¡insignificant¡¡riotas

happened¡¡in¡¡the¡¡case¡¡of¡¡the¡¡monarchy¡¡of¡¡Louis¡­Philippethe

dangers¡¡of¡¡an¡¡ignorance¡¡of¡¡collective¡¡psychology¡¡are¡¡evident¡£¡¡

The¡¡marshal¡¡in¡¡command¡¡of¡¡the¡¡troops¡¡in¡¡1848£»¡¡which¡¡were¡¡more

than¡¡sufficient¡¡to¡¡defend¡¡the¡¡king£»¡¡certainly¡¡did¡¡not¡¡understand

that¡¡the¡¡moment¡¡he¡¡allowed¡¡the¡¡crowd¡¡to¡¡mingle¡¡with¡¡the¡¡troops

the¡¡latter£»¡¡paralysed¡¡by¡¡suggestion¡¡and¡¡contagion£»¡¡would¡¡cease¡¡to

do¡¡their¡¡duty¡£¡¡¡¡Neither¡¡did¡¡he¡¡know¡¡that¡¡as¡¡the¡¡multitude¡¡is

extremely¡¡sensible¡¡to¡¡prestige¡¡it¡¡needs¡¡a¡¡great¡¡display¡¡of¡¡force

to¡¡impress¡¡it£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡such¡¡a¡¡display¡¡will¡¡at¡¡once¡¡suppress

hostile¡¡demonstrations¡£¡¡¡¡He¡¡was¡¡equally¡¡ignorant¡¡of¡¡the¡¡fact¡¡that

all¡¡gatherings¡¡should¡¡be¡¡dispersed¡¡immediately¡£¡¡¡¡All¡¡these¡¡things

have¡¡been¡¡taught¡¡by¡¡experience£»¡¡but¡¡in¡¡1848¡¡these¡¡lessons¡¡had¡¡not

been¡¡grasped¡£¡¡¡¡At¡¡the¡¡time¡¡of¡¡the¡¡great¡¡Revolution¡¡the¡¡psychology

of¡¡crowds¡¡was¡¡even¡¡less¡¡understood¡£





2¡£¡¡¡¡How¡¡the¡¡Stability¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Racial¡¡Mind¡¡limits¡¡the¡¡Oscillations

of¡¡the¡¡Mind¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Crowd¡£





A¡¡people¡¡can¡¡in¡¡a¡¡sense¡¡be¡¡likened¡¡to¡¡a¡¡crowd¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡possesses

certain¡¡characteristics£»¡¡but¡¡the¡¡oscillations¡¡of¡¡these

characteristics¡¡are¡¡limited¡¡by¡¡the¡¡soul¡¡or¡¡mind¡¡of¡¡the¡¡race¡£¡¡¡¡The

mind¡¡of¡¡the¡¡race¡¡has¡¡a¡¡fixity¡¡unknown¡¡to¡¡the¡¡transitory¡¡mind¡¡of

the¡¡crowd¡£



When¡¡a¡¡people¡¡possesses¡¡an¡¡ancestral¡¡soul¡¡established¡¡by¡¡a¡¡long

past¡¡the¡¡soul¡¡of¡¡the¡¡crowd¡¡is¡¡always¡¡dominated¡¡thereby¡£



A¡¡people¡¡differs¡¡from¡¡a¡¡crowd¡¡also¡¡in¡¡that¡¡it¡¡is¡¡composed¡¡of¡¡a

collection¡¡of¡¡groups£»¡¡each¡¡having¡¡different¡¡interests¡¡and

passions¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡a¡¡crowd¡¡properly¡¡so¡­calleda¡¡popular¡¡assembly£»¡¡for

examplethere¡¡are¡¡unities¡¡which¡¡may¡¡belong¡¡to¡¡very¡¡different

social¡¡categories¡£



A¡¡people¡¡sometimes¡¡seems¡¡as¡¡mobile¡¡as¡¡a¡¡crowd£»¡¡but¡¡we¡¡must¡¡not

forget¡¡that¡¡behind¡¡its¡¡mobility£»¡¡its¡¡enthusiasms£»¡¡its¡¡violence

and¡¡destructiveness£»¡¡the¡¡extremely¡¡tenacious¡¡and¡¡conservative

instincts¡¡of¡¡the¡¡racial¡¡mind¡¡persist¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡history¡¡of¡¡the

Revolution¡¡and¡¡the¡¡century¡¡which¡¡has¡¡followed¡¡shows¡¡how¡¡the

conservative¡¡spirit¡¡finally¡¡overcomes¡¡the¡¡spirit¡¡of¡¡destruction¡£¡¡

More¡¡than¡¡one¡¡system¡¡of¡¡government¡¡which¡¡the¡¡people¡¡has¡¡shattered

has¡¡been¡¡restored¡¡by¡¡the¡¡people¡£



It¡¡is¡¡not¡¡as¡¡easy¡¡to¡¡work¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡mind¡¡of¡¡the¡¡peoplethat¡¡is£»

the¡¡mind¡¡of¡¡the¡¡raceas¡¡on¡¡the¡¡mind¡¡of¡¡a¡¡crowd¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡means¡¡of

action¡¡are¡¡indirect¡¡and¡¡slower¡¡£¨journals£»¡¡conferences£»¡¡speeches£»

books£»¡¡&c¡££©¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡elements¡¡of¡¡persuasion¡¡always¡¡come¡¡under¡¡the

headings¡¡already¡¡given£º¡¡affirmation£»¡¡repetition£»¡¡prestige£»¡¡and

contagion¡£



Mental¡¡contagion¡¡may¡¡affect¡¡a¡¡whole¡¡people¡¡instantaneously£»¡¡but

more¡¡often¡¡it¡¡operates¡¡slowly£»¡¡creeping¡¡from¡¡group¡¡to¡¡group¡£¡¡

Thus¡¡was¡¡the¡¡Reformation¡¡propagated¡¡in¡¡France¡£



A¡¡people¡¡is¡¡far¡¡less¡¡excitable¡¡than¡¡a¡¡crowd£»¡¡but¡¡certain¡¡events

national¡¡insults£»¡¡threats¡¡of¡¡invasion£»¡¡&c¡£may¡¡arouse¡¡it

instantly¡£¡¡¡¡Such¡¡a¡¡phenomenon¡¡was¡¡observed¡¡on¡¡several¡¡occasions

during¡¡the¡¡Revolution£»¡¡notably¡¡at¡¡the¡¡time¡¡of¡¡the¡¡insolent

manifesto¡¡issued¡¡by¡¡the¡¡Duke¡¡of¡¡Brunswick¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Duke¡¡knew¡¡little

indeed¡¡of¡¡the¡¡psychology¡¡of¡¡the¡¡French¡¡race¡¡when¡¡he

proffered¡¡his¡¡threats¡£¡¡¡¡Not¡¡only¡¡did¡¡he¡¡considerably¡¡prejudice

the¡¡cause¡¡of¡¡Louis¡¡XVI¡££»¡¡but¡¡he¡¡also¡¡damaged¡¡his¡¡own£»¡¡since¡¡his

intervention¡¡raised¡¡from¡¡the¡¡soil¡¡an¡¡army¡¡eager¡¡to¡¡fight¡¡him¡£



This¡¡sudden¡¡explosion¡¡of¡¡feeling¡¡throughout¡¡a¡¡whole¡¡race¡¡has¡¡been

observed¡¡in¡¡all¡¡nations¡£¡¡¡¡Napoleon¡¡did¡¡not¡¡understand¡¡the¡¡power

of¡¡such¡¡explosions¡¡when¡¡he¡¡invaded¡¡Spain¡¡and¡¡Russia¡£¡¡¡¡One¡¡may

easily¡¡disaggregate¡¡the¡¡facile¡¡mind¡¡of¡¡a¡¡crowd£»¡¡but¡¡one¡¡can¡¡do

nothing¡¡before¡¡the¡¡permanent¡¡soul¡¡of¡¡a¡¡race¡£¡¡¡¡Certainly¡¡the

Russian¡¡peasant¡¡is¡¡a¡¡very¡¡indifferent¡¡being£»¡¡gross¡¡and¡¡narrow¡¡by

nature£»¡¡yet¡¡at¡¡the¡¡first¡¡news¡¡of¡¡invasion¡¡he¡¡was¡¡transformed¡£¡¡

One¡¡may¡¡judge¡¡of¡¡this¡¡fact¡¡on¡¡reading¡¡a¡¡letter¡¡written¡¡by

Elizabeth£»¡¡wife¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Emperor¡¡Alexander¡¡I¡£



¡®¡®From¡¡the¡¡moment¡¡when¡¡Napoleon¡¡had¡¡crossed¡¡our¡¡frontiers¡¡it¡¡was

as¡¡though¡¡an¡¡electric¡¡spark¡¡had¡¡spread¡¡through¡¡all¡¡Russia£»¡¡and¡¡if

the¡¡immensity¡¡of¡¡its¡¡area¡¡had¡¡made¡¡it¡¡possible¡¡for¡¡the¡¡news¡¡to

penetrate¡¡simultaneously¡¡to¡¡every¡¡corner¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Empire¡¡a¡¡cry¡¡of

indignation¡¡would¡¡have¡¡arisen¡¡so¡¡terrible¡¡that¡¡I¡¡believe¡¡it¡¡would

have¡¡resounded¡¡to¡¡the¡¡ends¡¡of¡¡the¡¡earth¡£¡¡¡¡As¡¡Napoleon¡¡advances

this¡¡feeling¡¡is¡¡growing¡¡yet¡¡stronger¡£¡¡¡¡Old¡¡men¡¡who¡¡have¡¡lost¡¡all

or¡¡nearly¡¡all¡¡their¡¡goods¡¡are¡¡saying£º¡¡¡¡¡®We¡¡shall¡¡find¡¡a¡¡way¡¡of

living¡£¡¡¡¡Anything¡¡is¡¡preferable¡¡to¡¡a¡¡shameful¡¡peace¡£'¡¡¡¡Women¡¡all

of¡¡whose¡¡kin¡¡are¡¡in¡¡the¡¡army¡¡regard¡¡the¡¡dangers¡¡they¡¡are¡¡running

as¡¡secondary£»¡¡and¡¡fear¡¡nothing¡¡but¡¡peace¡£¡¡¡¡Happily¡¡this¡¡peace£»


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