the psychology of revolution-µÚ19ÕÂ
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¡ª¡ª¡ª¡ªÎ´ÔĶÁÍꣿ¼ÓÈëÊéÇ©ÒѱãÏ´μÌÐøÔĶÁ£¡
itself¡¡beaten¡£¡¡¡¡Profiting¡¡by¡¡the¡¡king's¡¡absence£»¡¡it
arrested¡¡Berquin¡¡again¡¡and¡¡had¡¡him¡¡tried¡¡by¡¡Parliament¡£¡¡
Condemned¡¡at¡¡ten¡¡in¡¡the¡¡morning£»¡¡he¡¡was¡¡burned¡¡alive¡¡at¡¡noon¡£
Built¡¡up¡¡very¡¡gradually£»¡¡the¡¡power¡¡of¡¡the¡¡kings¡¡of¡¡France¡¡was¡¡not
absolute¡¡until¡¡the¡¡time¡¡of¡¡Louis¡¡XIV¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡then¡¡rapidly¡¡declined£»
and¡¡it¡¡would¡¡be¡¡truly¡¡difficult¡¡to¡¡speak¡¡of¡¡the¡¡absolutism¡¡of
Louis¡¡XVI¡£
This¡¡pretended¡¡master¡¡was¡¡the¡¡slave¡¡of¡¡his¡¡court£»¡¡his¡¡ministers£»
the¡¡clergy£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡nobles¡£¡¡¡¡He¡¡did¡¡what¡¡they¡¡forced¡¡him¡¡to¡¡do
and¡¡rarely¡¡what¡¡he¡¡wished¡£¡¡¡¡Perhaps¡¡no¡¡Frenchman¡¡was¡¡so¡¡little
free¡¡as¡¡the¡¡king¡£
The¡¡great¡¡power¡¡of¡¡the¡¡monarchy¡¡resided¡¡originally¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Divine
origin¡¡which¡¡was¡¡attributed¡¡to¡¡it£»¡¡and¡¡in¡¡the¡¡traditions¡¡which
had¡¡accumulated¡¡during¡¡the¡¡ages¡£¡¡¡¡These¡¡formed¡¡the¡¡real¡¡social
framework¡¡of¡¡the¡¡country¡£
The¡¡true¡¡cause¡¡of¡¡the¡¡disappearance¡¡of¡¡the¡¡ancien¡¡regime¡¡was
simply¡¡the¡¡weakening¡¡of¡¡the¡¡traditions¡¡which¡¡served¡¡as¡¡its
foundations¡£¡¡¡¡When¡¡after¡¡repeated¡¡criticism¡¡it¡¡could¡¡find¡¡no¡¡more
defenders£»¡¡the¡¡ancien¡¡regime¡¡crumbled¡¡like¡¡a¡¡building¡¡whose
foundations¡¡have¡¡been¡¡destroyed¡£
2¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Inconveniences¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Ancien¡¡Regime
A¡¡long¡established¡¡system¡¡of¡¡government¡¡will¡¡always¡¡finally¡¡seem
acceptable¡¡to¡¡the¡¡people¡¡governed¡£¡¡¡¡Habit¡¡masks¡¡its
inconveniences£»¡¡which¡¡appear¡¡only¡¡when¡¡men¡¡begin¡¡to¡¡think¡£¡¡¡¡Then
they¡¡ask¡¡how¡¡they¡¡could¡¡ever¡¡have¡¡supported¡¡them¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡truly
unhappy¡¡man¡¡is¡¡the¡¡man¡¡who¡¡believes¡¡himself¡¡miserable¡£
It¡¡was¡¡precisely¡¡this¡¡belief¡¡which¡¡was¡¡gaining¡¡ground¡¡at¡¡the¡¡time
of¡¡the¡¡Revolution£»¡¡under¡¡the¡¡influence¡¡of¡¡the¡¡writers¡¡whose¡¡work
we¡¡shall¡¡presently¡¡study¡£¡¡¡¡Then¡¡the¡¡imperfections¡¡of¡¡the
ancien¡¡regime¡¡stared¡¡all¡¡men¡¡in¡¡the¡¡face¡£¡¡¡¡They¡¡were
numerous£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡enough¡¡to¡¡mention¡¡a¡¡few¡£
Despite¡¡the¡¡apparent¡¡authority¡¡of¡¡the¡¡central¡¡power£»¡¡the¡¡kingdom£»
formed¡¡by¡¡the¡¡successive¡¡conquest¡¡of¡¡independent¡¡provinces£»¡¡was
divided¡¡into¡¡territories¡¡each¡¡of¡¡which¡¡had¡¡its¡¡own¡¡laws¡¡and
customs£»¡¡and¡¡each¡¡of¡¡which¡¡paid¡¡different¡¡imposts¡£¡¡¡¡Internal
customs¡houses¡¡separated¡¡them¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡unity¡¡of¡¡France¡¡was¡¡thus
somewhat¡¡artificial¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡represented¡¡an¡¡aggregate¡¡of¡¡various
countries¡¡which¡¡the¡¡repeated¡¡efforts¡¡of¡¡the¡¡kings£»¡¡including
Louis¡¡XIV¡££»¡¡had¡¡not¡¡succeeded¡¡in¡¡wholly¡¡unifying¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡most
useful¡¡effect¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Revolution¡¡was¡¡this¡¡very¡¡unification¡£
To¡¡such¡¡material¡¡divisions¡¡were¡¡added¡¡social¡¡divisions
constituted¡¡by¡¡different¡¡classesnobles£»¡¡clergy£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Third
Estate£»¡¡whose¡¡rigid¡¡barriers¡¡could¡¡only¡¡with¡¡the¡¡utmost
difficulty¡¡be¡¡crossed¡£
Regarding¡¡the¡¡division¡¡of¡¡the¡¡classes¡¡as¡¡one¡¡of¡¡its¡¡sources¡¡of
power£»¡¡the¡¡ancien¡¡regime¡¡had¡¡rigorously¡¡maintained¡¡that
division¡£¡¡¡¡This¡¡became¡¡the¡¡principal¡¡cause¡¡of¡¡the¡¡hatreds¡¡which
the¡¡system¡¡inspired¡£¡¡¡¡Much¡¡of¡¡the¡¡violence¡¡of¡¡the¡¡triumphant
bourgeoisie¡¡represented¡¡vengeance¡¡for¡¡a¡¡long¡¡past¡¡of¡¡disdain
and¡¡oppression¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡wounds¡¡of¡¡self¡love¡¡are¡¡the¡¡most¡¡difficult
of¡¡all¡¡to¡¡forget¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Third¡¡Estate¡¡had¡¡suffered¡¡many¡¡such
wounds¡£¡¡¡¡At¡¡a¡¡meeting¡¡of¡¡the¡¡States¡¡General¡¡in¡¡1614£»¡¡at¡¡which¡¡its
representatives¡¡were¡¡obliged¡¡to¡¡remain¡¡bareheaded¡¡on¡¡their¡¡knees£»
one¡¡member¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Third¡¡Estate¡¡having¡¡dared¡¡to¡¡say¡¡that¡¡the¡¡three
orders¡¡were¡¡like¡¡three¡¡brothers£»¡¡the¡¡spokesman¡¡of¡¡the¡¡nobles
replied¡¡¡®¡®that¡¡there¡¡was¡¡no¡¡fraternity¡¡between¡¡it¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Third£»
that¡¡the¡¡nobles¡¡did¡¡not¡¡wish¡¡the¡¡children¡¡of¡¡cobblers¡¡and
tanners¡¡to¡¡call¡¡them¡¡their¡¡brothers¡£''
Despite¡¡the¡¡march¡¡of¡¡enlightenment¡¡the¡¡nobles¡¡and¡¡the¡¡clergy
obstinately¡¡preserved¡¡their¡¡privileges¡¡and¡¡their¡¡demands£»¡¡no
longer¡¡justifiable¡¡now¡¡that¡¡these¡¡classes¡¡had¡¡ceased¡¡to¡¡render
services¡£
Kept¡¡from¡¡the¡¡exercise¡¡of¡¡public¡¡functions¡¡by¡¡the¡¡royal¡¡power£»
which¡¡distrusted¡¡them£»¡¡and¡¡progressively¡¡replaced¡¡by¡¡a
bourgeoisie¡¡which¡¡was¡¡more¡¡and¡¡more¡¡learned¡¡and¡¡capable£»¡¡the
social¡¡role¡¡of¡¡nobility¡¡and¡¡clergy¡¡was¡¡only¡¡an¡¡empty¡¡show¡£¡¡
This¡¡point¡¡has¡¡been¡¡luminously¡¡expounded¡¡by¡¡Taine£º
¡®¡®Since¡¡the¡¡nobility£»¡¡having¡¡lost¡¡its¡¡special¡¡capacity£»¡¡and¡¡the
Third¡¡Estate£»¡¡having¡¡acquired¡¡general¡¡capacity£»¡¡were¡¡now¡¡on¡¡a
level¡¡in¡¡respect¡¡of¡¡education¡¡and¡¡aptitudes£»¡¡the¡¡inequality¡¡which
divided¡¡them¡¡had¡¡become¡¡hurtful¡¡and¡¡useless¡£¡¡¡¡Instituted¡¡by
custom£»¡¡it¡¡was¡¡no¡¡longer¡¡ratified¡¡by¡¡the¡¡consciousness£»¡¡and¡¡the
Third¡¡Estate¡¡was¡¡with¡¡reason¡¡angered¡¡by¡¡privileges¡¡which¡¡nothing
justified£»¡¡neither¡¡the¡¡capacity¡¡of¡¡the¡¡nobles¡¡nor¡¡the¡¡incapacity
of¡¡the¡¡bourgeoisie¡£''
By¡¡reason¡¡of¡¡the¡¡rigidity¡¡of¡¡castes¡¡established¡¡by¡¡a¡¡long¡¡past¡¡we
cannot¡¡see¡¡what¡¡could¡¡have¡¡persuaded¡¡the¡¡nobles¡¡and¡¡the¡¡clergy¡¡to
renounce¡¡their¡¡privileges¡£¡¡¡¡Certainly¡¡they¡¡did¡¡finally¡¡abandon
them¡¡one¡¡memorable¡¡evening£»¡¡when¡¡events¡¡forced¡¡them¡¡to¡¡do¡¡so£»¡¡but
then¡¡it¡¡was¡¡too¡¡late£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Revolution£»¡¡unchained£»¡¡was¡¡pursuing
its¡¡course¡£
It¡¡is¡¡certain¡¡that¡¡modern¡¡progress¡¡would¡¡successively¡¡have
established¡¡all¡¡that¡¡the¡¡Revolution¡¡effectedthe¡¡equality¡¡of
citizens¡¡before¡¡the¡¡law£»¡¡the¡¡suppression¡¡of¡¡the¡¡privileges¡¡of
birth£»¡¡&c¡£¡¡¡¡Despite¡¡the¡¡conservative¡¡spirit¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Latins£»¡¡these
things¡¡would¡¡have¡¡been¡¡won£»¡¡as¡¡they¡¡were¡¡by¡¡the¡¡majority
of¡¡the¡¡peoples¡£¡¡¡¡We¡¡might¡¡in¡¡this¡¡manner¡¡have¡¡been¡¡saved¡¡twenty
years¡¡of¡¡warfare¡¡and¡¡devastation£»¡¡but¡¡we¡¡must¡¡have¡¡had¡¡a
different¡¡mental¡¡constitution£»¡¡and£»¡¡above¡¡all£»¡¡different
statesmen¡£
The¡¡profound¡¡hostility¡¡of¡¡the¡¡bourgeoisie¡¡against¡¡the¡¡classes
maintained¡¡above¡¡it¡¡by¡¡tradition¡¡was¡¡one¡¡of¡¡the¡¡great¡¡factors¡¡of
the¡¡Revolution£»¡¡and¡¡perfectly¡¡explains¡¡why£»¡¡after¡¡its¡¡triumph£»
the¡¡first¡¡class¡¡despoiled¡¡the¡¡vanquished¡¡of¡¡their¡¡wealth¡£¡¡¡¡They
behaved¡¡as¡¡conquerorslike¡¡William¡¡the¡¡Conqueror£»¡¡who£»¡¡after¡¡the
conquest¡¡of¡¡England£»¡¡distributed¡¡the¡¡soil¡¡among¡¡his¡¡soldiers¡£
But¡¡although¡¡the¡¡bourgeoisie¡¡detested¡¡the¡¡nobility¡¡they¡¡had¡¡no
hatred¡¡for¡¡royalty£»¡¡and¡¡did¡¡not¡¡regard¡¡it¡¡as¡¡revocable¡£¡¡¡¡The
maladdress¡¡of¡¡the¡¡king¡¡and¡¡his¡¡appeals¡¡to¡¡foreign¡¡powers¡¡only
very¡¡gradually¡¡made¡¡him¡¡unpopular¡£
The¡¡first¡¡Assembly¡¡never¡¡dreamed¡¡of¡¡founding¡¡a¡¡republic¡£¡¡
Extremely¡¡royalist£»¡¡in¡¡fact£»¡¡it¡¡thought¡¡simply¡¡to¡¡substitute¡¡a
constitutional¡¡for¡¡an¡¡absolute¡¡monarchy¡£¡¡¡¡Only¡¡the¡¡consciousness
of¡¡its¡¡increasing¡¡power¡¡exasperated¡¡it¡¡against¡¡the¡¡resistance¡¡of
the¡¡king£»¡¡but¡¡it¡¡dared¡¡not¡¡overthrow¡¡him¡£
3¡£¡¡¡¡Life¡¡under¡¡the¡¡Ancien¡¡Regime¡£
It¡¡is¡¡difficult¡¡to¡¡form¡¡a¡¡very¡¡clear¡¡idea¡¡of¡¡life¡¡under¡¡the
ancien¡¡regime£»¡¡and£»¡¡above¡¡all£»¡¡of¡¡the¡¡real¡¡situation¡¡of¡¡the
peasants¡£
The¡¡writers¡¡who¡¡defend¡¡the¡¡Revolution¡¡as¡¡theologians¡¡defend
religious¡¡dogmas¡¡draw¡¡such¡¡gloomy¡¡pictures¡¡of¡¡the¡¡existence¡¡of
the¡¡peasants¡¡under¡¡the¡¡ancien¡¡regime¡¡that¡¡we¡¡ask¡¡ourselves
how¡¡it¡¡was¡¡that¡¡all¡¡these¡¡unhappy¡¡creatures¡¡had¡¡not¡¡died
of¡¡hunger¡¡long¡¡before¡£¡¡¡¡A¡¡good¡¡example¡¡of¡¡this¡¡style¡¡of¡¡writing
may¡¡be¡¡found¡¡in¡¡a¡¡book¡¡by¡¡M¡£¡¡A¡£¡¡Rambaud£»¡¡formerly¡¡professor¡¡at
the¡¡Sorbonne£»¡¡published¡¡under¡¡the¡¡title¡¡History¡¡of¡¡the¡¡French
Revolution¡£¡¡¡¡One¡¡notices¡¡especially¡¡an¡¡engraving¡¡bearing¡¡the
legend£»¡¡Poverty¡¡of¡¡Peasants¡¡under¡¡Louis¡¡XIV¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡the¡¡foreground
a¡¡man¡¡is¡¡fighting¡¡some¡¡dogs¡¡for¡¡some¡¡bones£»¡¡which¡¡for¡¡that¡¡matter
are¡¡already¡¡quite¡¡fleshless¡£¡¡¡¡Beside¡¡him¡¡a¡¡wretched¡¡fellow¡¡is
twisting¡¡himself¡¡and¡¡compressing¡¡his¡¡stomach¡£¡¡¡¡Farther¡¡back¡¡a
woman¡¡lying¡¡on¡¡the¡¡ground¡¡is¡¡eating¡¡grass¡£¡¡¡¡At¡¡the¡¡back¡¡of¡¡the
landscape¡¡figures¡¡of¡¡which¡¡one¡¡cannot¡¡say¡¡whether¡¡they¡¡are
corpses¡¡or¡¡persons¡¡starving¡¡are¡¡also¡¡stretched¡¡on¡¡the¡¡soil¡£¡¡¡¡As
an¡¡example¡¡of¡¡the¡¡administration¡¡of¡¡the¡¡ancien¡¡regime¡¡the
same¡¡author¡¡assures¡¡us¡¡that¡¡¡®¡®a¡¡place¡¡in¡¡the¡¡police¡¡cost¡¡300
livres¡¡and¡¡brought¡¡in¡¡400£»000¡£''¡¡¡¡Such¡¡figures¡¡surely¡¡indicate¡¡a
great¡¡disinterestedness¡¡on¡¡the¡¡part¡¡of¡¡those¡¡who¡¡sold¡¡such
productive¡¡employment£¡¡¡¡¡He¡¡also¡¡informs¡¡us¡¡¡®¡®that¡¡it¡¡cost¡¡only
120¡¡livres¡¡to¡¡get¡¡people¡¡arrested£»''¡¡and¡¡that¡¡¡®¡®under¡¡Louis¡¡XV¡£
more¡¡than¡¡150£»000¡¡lettres¡¡de¡¡cachet¡¡were¡¡distributed¡£''
The¡¡majority¡¡of¡¡books¡¡dealing¡¡with¡¡the¡¡Revolution¡¡are¡¡conceived
with¡¡as¡¡little¡¡impartiality¡¡and¡¡critical¡¡spirit£»¡¡which¡¡is¡¡one
reason¡¡why¡¡this¡¡period¡¡is¡¡really¡¡so¡¡little¡¡known¡¡to¡¡us¡£
Certainly¡¡there¡¡is¡¡no¡¡lack¡¡of¡¡documents£»¡¡but¡¡they¡¡are¡¡absolutely
contradictory¡£¡¡¡¡To¡¡the¡¡celebrated¡¡description¡¡of¡¡La¡¡Bruyere¡¡we
may¡¡oppose¡¡the¡¡enthusiastic¡¡picture¡¡drawn¡¡by¡¡the¡¡English
traveller¡¡Young¡¡of¡¡the¡¡prosperous¡¡condition¡¡of¡¡the¡¡peasants¡¡of
some¡¡of¡¡the¡¡French¡¡provinces¡£
Were¡¡they¡¡really¡¡crushed¡¡by¡¡taxation£»¡¡and¡¡did¡¡they£»¡¡as¡¡has¡¡been
stated£»¡¡pay¡¡four¡fifths¡¡of¡¡their¡¡revenue¡¡instead¡¡of¡¡a¡¡fifth¡¡as
to¡day£¿¡¡¡¡Impossible¡¡to¡¡say¡¡with¡¡certainty¡£¡¡¡¡One¡¡capital¡¡fact£»
however£»¡¡seems¡¡to¡¡prove¡¡that¡¡under¡¡the¡¡ancien¡¡regime¡¡the
situation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡inhabitants¡¡of¡¡the¡¡rural¡¡districts¡¡could¡¡not
have¡¡been¡¡so¡¡very¡¡wretched£»¡¡since¡¡it¡¡seems¡¡established¡¡that¡¡more
than¡¡a¡¡third¡¡of¡¡the¡¡soil¡¡had¡¡been¡¡bought¡¡by¡¡peasants¡£
We¡¡are¡¡better¡¡informed¡¡as¡¡to¡¡the¡¡financial¡¡system¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡was¡¡very
oppressive¡¡and¡¡extremely¡¡complicated¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡budgets¡¡usually¡¡showed
deficits£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡imposts¡¡of¡¡all¡¡kinds¡¡were¡¡raised¡¡by¡¡tyrannical
farmers¡general¡£¡¡¡¡At¡¡the¡¡very¡¡moment¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Revolution¡¡this
condition¡¡of¡¡the¡¡finances¡¡became¡¡the¡¡cause¡¡of¡¡universal
discontent£»¡¡which¡¡is¡¡expressed¡¡in¡¡the¡¡cahiers¡¡of¡¡the¡¡States
General¡£¡¡¡¡Let¡¡us¡¡remark¡¡that¡¡these¡¡cahiers¡¡did¡¡not¡¡represent¡¡a
previous¡¡state¡¡of¡¡affairs£»¡¡but¡¡an¡¡actual¡¡condition¡¡due¡¡to¡¡a
crisis¡¡of¡¡poverty¡¡produced¡¡by¡¡the¡¡bad¡¡harvest¡¡of¡¡1788¡¡and¡¡the
hard¡¡winter¡¡of¡¡1789¡£¡¡¡¡What¡¡would¡¡these¡¡cahiers¡¡have¡¡told¡¡us¡¡had
they¡¡been¡¡written¡¡ten¡¡years¡¡earlier£¿
Despite¡¡these¡¡unfavourable¡¡circumstances¡¡the¡¡cahiers¡¡contained
no¡¡revolutionary¡¡ideas¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡most¡¡advanced¡¡merely¡¡asked¡¡that
taxes¡¡should¡¡be¡¡imposed¡¡only¡¡with¡¡the¡¡consent¡¡of¡¡the¡¡States
General¡¡and¡¡paid¡¡by¡¡all¡¡alike¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡same¡¡cahiers¡¡sometimes
expressed¡¡a¡¡wish¡¡that¡¡the¡¡power¡¡of¡¡the¡¡king¡¡should¡¡be¡¡limited¡¡by
a¡¡Constitution¡¡defining¡¡his¡¡rights¡¡and¡¡those¡¡of¡¡the¡¡nation¡£¡¡¡¡If
these¡¡wishes¡¡had¡¡been¡¡granted¡¡a¡¡constitutional¡¡monarchy¡¡could
very¡¡easily¡¡have¡¡been¡¡substituted¡¡for¡¡the¡¡absolute¡¡monarchy£»¡¡and
the¡¡Revolution¡¡would¡¡probably¡¡have¡¡been¡¡avoided¡£
Unhappily£»¡¡the¡¡nobility¡¡and¡¡the¡¡clergy¡¡were¡¡too¡¡strong¡¡and¡¡Louis
XVI¡£¡¡too¡¡weak¡¡for¡¡such¡¡a¡¡solution¡¡to¡¡be¡¡possible¡£
Moreover£»¡¡it¡¡would¡¡have¡¡been¡¡rendered¡¡extremely¡¡difficult¡¡by¡¡the
demands¡¡of¡¡the¡¡bourgeoisie£»¡¡who¡¡claimed¡¡to¡¡substitute¡¡themselves
for¡¡the¡¡nobles£»¡¡and¡¡were¡¡the¡¡real¡¡authors¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Revolution¡£¡¡¡¡The
movement¡¡started¡¡by¡¡the¡¡middle¡¡classes¡¡rapidly¡¡exceeded¡¡their
hopes£»¡¡needs£»¡¡and¡¡aspirations¡£¡¡¡¡They¡¡had¡¡claimed¡¡equality¡¡for
their¡¡own¡¡profit£»¡¡but¡¡the¡¡people¡¡also¡¡demanded¡¡equality¡£¡¡¡¡The
Revolution¡¡thus¡¡finally¡¡became¡¡the¡¡popular¡¡government¡¡which¡¡it
was¡¡not¡¡and¡¡had¡¡no¡¡intention¡¡of¡¡becoming¡¡at¡¡the¡¡outset¡£
4¡£¡¡¡¡Evolution¡¡of¡¡Monarchical¡¡Feeling¡¡during¡¡the¡¡Revolution¡£
Despite¡¡the¡¡slow¡¡evolution¡¡of¡¡the¡¡affective¡¡elements£»¡¡it¡¡is
certain¡¡that¡¡during¡¡the¡¡Revolution¡¡the¡¡sentiments£»¡¡not¡¡of¡¡the
people¡¡only£»¡¡but¡¡also¡¡of¡¡the¡¡revolutionary¡¡Assemblies¡¡with¡¡regard
to¡¡the¡¡monarchy£»¡¡underwent¡¡a¡¡very¡¡rapid¡¡change¡£¡¡¡¡Between¡¡the
moment¡¡when¡¡the¡¡legislators¡¡of¡¡the¡¡first¡¡Assembly¡¡surrounded
Louis¡¡XVI¡£¡¡with¡¡respect¡¡and¡¡the¡¡moment¡¡when¡¡his¡¡head¡¡was¡¡cut¡¡off
a¡¡very¡¡few¡¡years¡¡had¡¡elapse