°®°®Ð¡ËµÍø > ÆäËûµç×ÓÊé > the psychology of revolution >

µÚ2ÕÂ

the psychology of revolution-µÚ2ÕÂ

С˵£º the psychology of revolution ×ÖÊý£º ÿҳ3500×Ö

°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡û »ò ¡ú ¿É¿ìËÙÉÏÏ·­Ò³£¬°´¼üÅÌÉ쵀 Enter ¼ü¿É»Øµ½±¾ÊéĿ¼ҳ£¬°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡ü ¿É»Øµ½±¾Ò³¶¥²¿£¡
¡ª¡ª¡ª¡ªÎ´ÔĶÁÍꣿ¼ÓÈëÊéÇ©ÒѱãÏ´μÌÐøÔĶÁ£¡




of¡¡ancestral¡¡influences£»¡¡the¡¡laws¡¡which¡¡rule¡¡the¡¡actions¡¡of¡¡the

crowd£»¡¡data¡¡relating¡¡to¡¡the¡¡disaggregation¡¡of¡¡personality£»¡¡mental

contagion£»¡¡the¡¡unconscious¡¡formation¡¡of¡¡beliefs£»¡¡and¡¡the

distinction¡¡between¡¡the¡¡various¡¡forms¡¡of¡¡logic¡£



To¡¡tell¡¡the¡¡truth£»¡¡these¡¡applications¡¡of¡¡science£»¡¡which¡¡are

utilised¡¡in¡¡this¡¡book£»¡¡have¡¡not¡¡been¡¡so¡¡utilised¡¡hitherto¡£¡¡

Historians¡¡have¡¡generally¡¡stopped¡¡short¡¡at¡¡the¡¡study¡¡of

documents£»¡¡and¡¡even¡¡that¡¡study¡¡is¡¡sufficient¡¡to¡¡excite¡¡the¡¡doubts

of¡¡which¡¡I¡¡have¡¡spoken¡£





The¡¡great¡¡events¡¡which¡¡shape¡¡the¡¡destinies¡¡of¡¡peoples

revolutions£»¡¡for¡¡example£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡outbreak¡¡of¡¡religious¡¡beliefs

are¡¡sometimes¡¡so¡¡difficult¡¡to¡¡explain¡¡that¡¡one¡¡must¡¡limit¡¡oneself

to¡¡a¡¡mere¡¡statement¡£



From¡¡the¡¡time¡¡of¡¡my¡¡first¡¡historical¡¡researches¡¡I¡¡have¡¡been

struck¡¡by¡¡the¡¡impenetrable¡¡aspect¡¡of¡¡certain¡¡essential¡¡phenomena£»

those¡¡relating¡¡to¡¡the¡¡genesis¡¡of¡¡beliefs¡¡especially£»¡¡I¡¡felt

convinced¡¡that¡¡something¡¡fundamental¡¡was¡¡lacking¡¡that¡¡was

essential¡¡to¡¡their¡¡interpretation¡£¡¡¡¡Reason¡¡having¡¡said¡¡all¡¡it

could¡¡say£»¡¡nothing¡¡more¡¡could¡¡be¡¡expected¡¡of¡¡it£»¡¡and¡¡other¡¡means

must¡¡be¡¡sought¡¡of¡¡comprehending¡¡what¡¡had¡¡not¡¡been¡¡elucidated¡£



For¡¡a¡¡long¡¡time¡¡these¡¡important¡¡questions¡¡remained¡¡obscure¡¡to¡¡me¡£¡¡

Extended¡¡travel£»¡¡devoted¡¡to¡¡the¡¡study¡¡of¡¡the¡¡remnants¡¡of¡¡vanished

civilisations£»¡¡had¡¡not¡¡done¡¡much¡¡to¡¡throw¡¡light¡¡upon¡¡them¡£



Reflecting¡¡upon¡¡it¡¡continually£»¡¡I¡¡was¡¡forced¡¡to¡¡recognise¡¡that

the¡¡problem¡¡was¡¡composed¡¡of¡¡a¡¡series¡¡of¡¡other¡¡problems£»¡¡which¡¡I

should¡¡have¡¡to¡¡study¡¡separately¡£¡¡¡¡This¡¡I¡¡did¡¡for¡¡a¡¡period¡¡of

twenty¡¡years£»¡¡presenting¡¡the¡¡results¡¡of¡¡my¡¡researches¡¡in¡¡a

succession¡¡of¡¡volumes¡£



One¡¡of¡¡the¡¡first¡¡was¡¡devoted¡¡to¡¡the¡¡study¡¡of¡¡the¡¡psychological

laws¡¡of¡¡the¡¡evolution¡¡of¡¡peoples¡£¡¡¡¡Having¡¡shown¡¡that¡¡the

historic¡¡racesthat¡¡is£»¡¡the¡¡races¡¡formed¡¡by¡¡the¡¡hazards¡¡of

historyfinally¡¡acquired¡¡psychological¡¡characteristics¡¡as¡¡stable

as¡¡their¡¡anatomical¡¡characteristics£»¡¡I¡¡attempted¡¡to¡¡explain¡¡how¡¡a

people¡¡transforms¡¡its¡¡institutions£»¡¡its¡¡languages£»¡¡and¡¡its¡¡arts¡£¡¡

I¡¡explained¡¡in¡¡the¡¡same¡¡work¡¡why¡¡it¡¡was¡¡that¡¡individual

personalities£»¡¡under¡¡the¡¡influence¡¡of¡¡sudden¡¡variations¡¡of

environment£»¡¡might¡¡be¡¡entirely¡¡disaggregated¡£



But¡¡besides¡¡the¡¡fixed¡¡collectivities¡¡formed¡¡by¡¡the¡¡peoples£»¡¡there

are¡¡mobile¡¡and¡¡transitory¡¡collectivities¡¡known¡¡as¡¡crowds¡£¡¡¡¡Now

these¡¡crowds¡¡or¡¡mobs£»¡¡by¡¡the¡¡aid¡¡of¡¡which¡¡the¡¡great¡¡movements¡¡of

history¡¡are¡¡accomplished£»¡¡have¡¡characteristics¡¡absolutely

different¡¡from¡¡those¡¡of¡¡the¡¡individuals¡¡who¡¡compose¡¡them¡£¡¡¡¡What

are¡¡these¡¡characteristics£»¡¡and¡¡how¡¡are¡¡they¡¡evolved£¿¡¡¡¡This¡¡new

problem¡¡was¡¡examined¡¡in¡¡The¡¡Psychology¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Crowd¡£



Only¡¡after¡¡these¡¡studies¡¡did¡¡I¡¡begin¡¡to¡¡perceive¡¡certain

influences¡¡which¡¡had¡¡escaped¡¡me¡£



But¡¡this¡¡was¡¡not¡¡all¡£¡¡¡¡Among¡¡the¡¡most¡¡important¡¡factors¡¡of

history¡¡one¡¡was¡¡preponderantthe¡¡factor¡¡of¡¡beliefs¡£¡¡¡¡How¡¡are

these¡¡beliefs¡¡born£»¡¡and¡¡are¡¡they¡¡really¡¡rational¡¡and¡¡voluntary£»

as¡¡was¡¡long¡¡taught£¿¡¡¡¡Are¡¡they¡¡not¡¡rather¡¡unconscious¡¡and

independent¡¡of¡¡all¡¡reason£¿¡¡¡¡A¡¡difficult¡¡question£»¡¡which¡¡I¡¡dealt

with¡¡in¡¡my¡¡last¡¡book£»¡¡Opinions¡¡and¡¡Beliefs¡£



So¡¡long¡¡as¡¡psychology¡¡regards¡¡beliefs¡¡as¡¡voluntary¡¡and¡¡rational

they¡¡will¡¡remain¡¡inexplicable¡£¡¡¡¡Having¡¡proved¡¡that¡¡they¡¡are

usually¡¡irrational¡¡and¡¡always¡¡involuntary£»¡¡I¡¡was¡¡able¡¡to¡¡propound

the¡¡solution¡¡of¡¡this¡¡important¡¡problem£»¡¡how¡¡it¡¡was¡¡that¡¡beliefs

which¡¡no¡¡reason¡¡could¡¡justify¡¡were¡¡admitted¡¡without

difficulty¡¡by¡¡the¡¡most¡¡enlightened¡¡spirits¡¡of¡¡all¡¡ages¡£



The¡¡solution¡¡of¡¡the¡¡historical¡¡difficulties¡¡which¡¡had¡¡so¡¡long

been¡¡sought¡¡was¡¡thenceforth¡¡obvious¡£¡¡¡¡I¡¡arrived¡¡at¡¡the¡¡conclusion

that¡¡beside¡¡the¡¡rational¡¡logic¡¡which¡¡conditions¡¡thought£»¡¡and¡¡was

formerly¡¡regarded¡¡as¡¡our¡¡sole¡¡guide£»¡¡there¡¡exist¡¡very¡¡different

forms¡¡of¡¡logic£º¡¡affective¡¡logic£»¡¡collective¡¡logic£»¡¡and¡¡mystic

logic£»¡¡which¡¡usually¡¡overrule¡¡the¡¡reason¡¡and¡¡engender¡¡the

generative¡¡impulses¡¡of¡¡our¡¡conduct¡£



This¡¡fact¡¡well¡¡established£»¡¡it¡¡seemed¡¡to¡¡me¡¡evident¡¡that¡¡if¡¡a

great¡¡number¡¡of¡¡historical¡¡events¡¡are¡¡often¡¡uncomprehended£»¡¡it¡¡is

because¡¡we¡¡seek¡¡to¡¡interpret¡¡them¡¡in¡¡the¡¡light¡¡of¡¡a¡¡logic¡¡which

in¡¡reality¡¡has¡¡very¡¡little¡¡influence¡¡upon¡¡their¡¡genesis¡£





All¡¡these¡¡researches£»¡¡which¡¡are¡¡here¡¡summed¡¡up¡¡in¡¡a¡¡few¡¡lines£»

demanded¡¡long¡¡years¡¡for¡¡their¡¡accomplishment¡£¡¡¡¡Despairing¡¡of

completing¡¡them£»¡¡I¡¡abandoned¡¡them¡¡more¡¡than¡¡once¡¡to¡¡return¡¡to

those¡¡labours¡¡of¡¡the¡¡laboratory¡¡in¡¡which¡¡one¡¡is¡¡always¡¡sure¡¡of

skirting¡¡the¡¡truth¡¡and¡¡of¡¡acquiring¡¡fragments¡¡at¡¡least¡¡of

certitude¡£



But¡¡while¡¡it¡¡is¡¡very¡¡interesting¡¡to¡¡explore¡¡the¡¡world¡¡of¡¡material

phenomena£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡still¡¡more¡¡so¡¡to¡¡decipher¡¡men£»¡¡for¡¡which¡¡reason

I¡¡have¡¡always¡¡been¡¡led¡¡back¡¡to¡¡psychology¡£



Certain¡¡principles¡¡deduced¡¡from¡¡my¡¡researches¡¡appearing¡¡likely¡¡to

prove¡¡fruitful£»¡¡I¡¡resolved¡¡to¡¡apply¡¡them¡¡to¡¡the¡¡study¡¡of¡¡concrete

instances£»¡¡and¡¡was¡¡thus¡¡led¡¡to¡¡deal¡¡with¡¡the¡¡Psychology¡¡of

Revolutionsnotably¡¡that¡¡of¡¡the¡¡French¡¡Revolution¡£



Proceeding¡¡in¡¡the¡¡analysis¡¡of¡¡our¡¡great¡¡Revolution£»¡¡the

greater¡¡part¡¡of¡¡the¡¡opinions¡¡determined¡¡by¡¡the¡¡reading¡¡of¡¡books

deserted¡¡me¡¡one¡¡by¡¡one£»¡¡although¡¡I¡¡had¡¡considered¡¡them

unshakable¡£



To¡¡explain¡¡this¡¡period¡¡we¡¡must¡¡consider¡¡it¡¡as¡¡a¡¡whole£»¡¡as¡¡many

historians¡¡have¡¡done¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡is¡¡composed¡¡of¡¡phenomena¡¡simultaneous

but¡¡independent¡¡of¡¡one¡¡another¡£



Each¡¡of¡¡its¡¡phases¡¡reveals¡¡events¡¡engendered¡¡by¡¡psychological

laws¡¡working¡¡with¡¡the¡¡regularity¡¡of¡¡clockwork¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡actors¡¡in

this¡¡great¡¡drama¡¡seem¡¡to¡¡move¡¡like¡¡the¡¡characters¡¡of¡¡a¡¡previously

determined¡¡drama¡£¡¡¡¡Each¡¡says¡¡what¡¡he¡¡must¡¡say£»¡¡acts¡¡as¡¡he¡¡is

bound¡¡to¡¡act¡£



To¡¡be¡¡sure£»¡¡the¡¡actors¡¡in¡¡the¡¡revolutionary¡¡drama¡¡differed¡¡from

those¡¡of¡¡a¡¡written¡¡drama¡¡in¡¡that¡¡they¡¡had¡¡not¡¡studied¡¡their

parts£»¡¡but¡¡these¡¡were¡¡dictated¡¡by¡¡invisible¡¡forces¡£



Precisely¡¡because¡¡they¡¡were¡¡subjected¡¡to¡¡the¡¡inevitable

progression¡¡of¡¡logics¡¡incomprehensible¡¡to¡¡them¡¡we¡¡see¡¡them¡¡as

greatly¡¡astonished¡¡by¡¡the¡¡events¡¡of¡¡which¡¡they¡¡were¡¡the¡¡heroes¡¡as

are¡¡we¡¡ourselves¡£¡¡¡¡Never¡¡did¡¡they¡¡suspect¡¡the¡¡invisible¡¡powers

which¡¡forced¡¡them¡¡to¡¡act¡£¡¡¡¡They¡¡were¡¡the¡¡masters¡¡neither¡¡of¡¡their

fury¡¡nor¡¡their¡¡weakness¡£¡¡¡¡They¡¡spoke¡¡in¡¡the¡¡name¡¡of¡¡reason£»

pretending¡¡to¡¡be¡¡guided¡¡by¡¡reason£»¡¡but¡¡in¡¡reality¡¡it¡¡was¡¡by¡¡no

means¡¡reason¡¡that¡¡impelled¡¡them¡£



¡®¡®The¡¡decisions¡¡for¡¡which¡¡we¡¡are¡¡so¡¡greatly¡¡reproached£»''¡¡wrote

Billaud¡­Varenne£»¡¡¡®¡®were¡¡more¡¡often¡¡than¡¡otherwise¡¡not¡¡intended¡¡or

desired¡¡by¡¡us¡¡two¡¡days¡¡or¡¡even¡¡one¡¡day¡¡beforehand£º¡¡the¡¡crisis

alone¡¡evoked¡¡them¡£''



Not¡¡that¡¡we¡¡must¡¡consider¡¡the¡¡events¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Revolution¡¡as

dominated¡¡by¡¡an¡¡imperious¡¡fatality¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡readers¡¡of¡¡our¡¡works

will¡¡know¡¡that¡¡we¡¡recognise¡¡in¡¡the¡¡man¡¡of¡¡superior¡¡qualities¡¡the

role¡¡of¡¡averting¡¡fatalities¡£¡¡¡¡But¡¡he¡¡can¡¡dissociate¡¡himself

only¡¡from¡¡a¡¡few¡¡of¡¡such£»¡¡and¡¡is¡¡often¡¡powerless¡¡before¡¡the

sequence¡¡of¡¡events¡¡which¡¡even¡¡at¡¡their¡¡origin¡¡could¡¡scarcely¡¡be

ruled¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡scientist¡¡knows¡¡how¡¡to¡¡destroy¡¡the¡¡microbe¡¡before¡¡it

has¡¡time¡¡to¡¡act£»¡¡but¡¡he¡¡knows¡¡himself¡¡powerless¡¡to¡¡prevent¡¡the

evolution¡¡of¡¡the¡¡resulting¡¡malady¡£





When¡¡any¡¡question¡¡gives¡¡rise¡¡to¡¡violently¡¡contradictory¡¡opinions

we¡¡may¡¡be¡¡sure¡¡that¡¡it¡¡belongs¡¡to¡¡the¡¡province¡¡of¡¡beliefs¡¡and¡¡not

to¡¡that¡¡of¡¡knowledge¡£



We¡¡have¡¡shown¡¡in¡¡a¡¡preceding¡¡work¡¡that¡¡belief£»¡¡of¡¡unconscious

origin¡¡and¡¡independent¡¡of¡¡all¡¡reason£»¡¡can¡¡never¡¡be¡¡influenced¡¡by

reason¡£



The¡¡Revolution£»¡¡the¡¡work¡¡of¡¡believers£»¡¡has¡¡seldom¡¡been¡¡judged¡¡by

any¡¡but¡¡believers¡£¡¡¡¡Execrated¡¡by¡¡some¡¡and¡¡praised¡¡by¡¡others£»¡¡it

has¡¡remained¡¡one¡¡of¡¡those¡¡dogmas¡¡which¡¡are¡¡accepted¡¡or¡¡rejected

as¡¡a¡¡whole£»¡¡without¡¡the¡¡intervention¡¡of¡¡rational¡¡logic¡£



Although¡¡in¡¡its¡¡beginnings¡¡a¡¡religious¡¡or¡¡political¡¡revolution

may¡¡very¡¡well¡¡be¡¡supported¡¡by¡¡rational¡¡elements£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡developed

only¡¡by¡¡the¡¡aid¡¡of¡¡mystic¡¡and¡¡affective¡¡elements¡¡which¡¡are

absolutely¡¡foreign¡¡to¡¡reason¡£



The¡¡historians¡¡who¡¡have¡¡judged¡¡the¡¡events¡¡of¡¡the¡¡French

Revolution¡¡in¡¡the¡¡name¡¡of¡¡rational¡¡logic¡¡could¡¡not¡¡comprehend

them£»¡¡since¡¡this¡¡form¡¡of¡¡logic¡¡did¡¡not¡¡dictate¡¡them¡£¡¡¡¡As¡¡the

actors¡¡of¡¡these¡¡events¡¡themselves¡¡understood¡¡them¡¡but¡¡ill£»¡¡we

shall¡¡not¡¡be¡¡far¡¡from¡¡the¡¡truth¡¡in¡¡saying¡¡that¡¡our

Revolution¡¡was¡¡a¡¡phenomenon¡¡equally¡¡misunderstood¡¡by¡¡those

who¡¡caused¡¡it¡¡and¡¡by¡¡those¡¡who¡¡have¡¡described¡¡it¡£¡¡¡¡At¡¡no¡¡period

of¡¡history¡¡did¡¡men¡¡so¡¡little¡¡grasp¡¡the¡¡present£»¡¡so¡¡greatly¡¡ignore

the¡¡past£»¡¡and¡¡so¡¡poorly¡¡divine¡¡the¡¡future¡£





¡£¡¡¡£¡¡¡£¡¡The¡¡power¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Revolution¡¡did¡¡not¡¡reside¡¡in¡¡the

principleswhich¡¡for¡¡that¡¡matter¡¡were¡¡anything¡¡but¡¡novelwhich

it¡¡sought¡¡to¡¡propagate£»¡¡nor¡¡in¡¡the¡¡institutions¡¡which¡¡it¡¡sought

to¡¡found¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡people¡¡cares¡¡very¡¡little¡¡for¡¡institutions¡¡and¡¡even

less¡¡for¡¡doctrines¡£¡¡¡¡That¡¡the¡¡Revolution¡¡was¡¡potent¡¡indeed£»¡¡that

it¡¡made¡¡France¡¡accept¡¡the¡¡violence£»¡¡the¡¡murders£»¡¡the¡¡ruin¡¡and¡¡the

horror¡¡of¡¡a¡¡frightful¡¡civil¡¡war£»¡¡that¡¡finally¡¡it¡¡defended¡¡itself

victoriously¡¡against¡¡a¡¡Europe¡¡in¡¡arms£»¡¡was¡¡due¡¡to¡¡the¡¡fact¡¡that

it¡¡had¡¡founded¡¡not¡¡a¡¡new¡¡system¡¡of¡¡government¡¡but¡¡a¡¡new¡¡religion¡£



Now¡¡history¡¡shows¡¡us¡¡how¡¡irresistible¡¡is¡¡the¡¡might¡¡of¡¡a¡¡strong

belief¡£¡¡¡¡Invincible¡¡Rome¡¡herself¡¡had¡¡to¡¡bow¡¡before¡¡the¡¡armies¡¡of

nomad¡¡shepherds¡¡illuminated¡¡by¡¡the¡¡faith¡¡of¡¡Mahommed¡£¡¡¡¡For¡¡the

same¡¡reason¡¡the¡¡kings¡¡of¡¡Europe¡¡could¡¡not¡¡resist¡¡the

tatterdemalion¡¡soldiers¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Convention¡£¡¡¡¡Like¡¡all¡¡apostles£»

they¡¡were¡¡ready¡¡to¡¡immolate¡¡themselves¡¡in¡¡the¡¡sole¡¡end¡¡of

propagating¡¡their¡¡beliefs£»¡¡which¡¡according¡¡to¡¡their¡¡dream¡¡were¡¡to

renew¡¡the¡¡world¡£



The¡¡religion¡¡thus¡¡founded¡¡had¡¡the¡¡force¡¡of¡¡other¡¡religions£»¡¡if

not¡¡their¡¡duration¡£¡¡¡¡Yet¡¡it¡¡did¡¡not¡¡perish¡¡without¡¡leaving

indelible¡¡traces£»¡¡and¡¡its¡¡influence¡¡is¡¡active¡¡still¡£





We¡¡shall¡¡not¡¡consider¡¡the¡¡Revolution¡¡as¡¡a¡¡clean¡¡sweep¡¡in

history£»¡¡as¡¡its¡¡apostles¡¡believed¡¡it¡£¡¡¡¡We¡¡know¡¡that¡¡to

demonstrate¡¡their¡¡intention¡¡of¡¡creating¡¡a¡¡world¡¡distinct¡¡from¡¡the

old¡¡they¡¡initiated¡¡a¡¡new¡¡era¡¡and¡¡professed¡¡to¡¡break¡¡entirely¡¡with

all¡¡vestiges¡¡of¡¡the¡¡past¡£



But¡¡the¡¡past¡¡never¡¡dies¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡is¡¡even¡¡more¡¡truly¡¡within¡¡us¡¡than

without¡¡us¡£¡¡¡¡Against¡¡their¡¡will¡¡the¡¡reformers¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Revolution

remained¡¡saturated¡¡with¡¡the¡¡past£»¡¡and¡¡could¡¡only¡¡continue£»¡¡under

other¡¡names£»¡¡the¡¡traditions¡¡of¡¡the¡¡monarchy£»¡¡even¡¡exaggerating

the¡¡autocracy¡¡and¡¡centralisation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡old¡¡system¡£¡¡¡¡Tocqueville

had¡¡no¡¡difficulty¡¡in¡¡proving¡¡that¡¡the¡¡Revolution¡¡did¡¡little¡¡but

overturn¡¡that¡¡which¡¡was¡¡about¡¡to¡¡fall¡£



If¡¡in¡¡reality¡¡the¡¡Revolution¡¡destroyed¡¡but¡¡little¡¡it¡¡favoured¡¡the

fruition¡¡of¡¡certain¡¡ideas¡¡which¡¡continued¡¡thenceforth¡¡to¡¡develop¡£



The¡¡fraternity¡¡and¡¡liberty¡¡which¡¡it¡¡proclaimed¡¡never¡¡greatly

seduced¡¡the¡¡peoples£»¡¡but¡¡equality¡¡became¡¡their¡¡gospel£º¡¡the¡¡pivot

of¡¡socialism¡¡and¡¡of¡¡the¡¡entire¡¡evolution¡¡of¡¡modern¡¡democratic

ideas¡£¡¡¡¡We¡¡may¡¡therefore¡¡say¡¡that¡¡the¡¡Revolution¡¡did¡¡not¡¡end¡¡with

the¡¡advent¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Empire£»¡¡nor¡¡with¡¡the¡¡successive¡¡restorations

which¡¡followed¡¡it¡£¡¡¡¡Secretly¡¡or¡¡in¡¡the¡¡light¡¡of¡¡day¡¡it¡¡has¡¡slowly

unrolled¡¡itself¡¡and¡¡still¡¡affects¡¡men's¡¡minds¡£





The¡¡study¡¡of¡¡the¡¡French¡¡Revolution¡¡to¡¡which¡¡a¡¡great¡¡part¡¡of¡¡this

book¡¡is¡¡devoted¡¡will¡¡perhaps¡¡deprive¡¡the¡¡reader¡¡of¡¡more¡¡than¡¡one

illusion£»¡¡by¡¡proving¡¡to¡¡

·µ»ØĿ¼ ÉÏÒ»Ò³ ÏÂÒ»Ò³ »Øµ½¶¥²¿ ÔÞ£¨1£© ²È£¨1£©

Äã¿ÉÄÜϲ»¶µÄ