the psychology of revolution-第23章

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even　as　subordinates；　and　also；　in　most　cases；　an　appetite　for

money　or　for　pleasure。　　Between　the　delegate　of　the　Committee　of

Public　Safety　and　the　minister；　prefect；　or　subprefect　of　the

Empire　the　difference　is　small：　it　is　the　same　man　under　the　two

costumes；　first　en　carmagnole；　then　in　the　braided　coat。''



The　dogma　of　equality　had　as　its　first　consequence　the

proclamation　of　popular　sovereignty　by　the　bourgeoisie。　　This

sovereignty　remained　otherwise　highly　theoretical　during　the

whole　Revolution。



The　principle　of　authority　was　the　lasting　legacy　of　the

Revolution。　　The　two　terms　‘‘liberty''　and　‘‘fraternity''　which

accompany　it　in　the　republican　device　had　never　much　influence。　

We　may　even　say　that　they　had　none　during　the　Revolution　and　the

Empire；　but　merely　served　to　decorate　men's　speeches。



Their　influence　was　hardly　more　considerable　later。　　Fraternity

was　never　practised　and　the　peoples　have　never　cared　much　for

liberty。　　To…day　our　working…men　have　completely　surrendered　it

to　their　unions。



To　sum　up：　although　the　Republican　motto　has　been　little

applied　it　has　exerted　a　very　great　influence。　　Of　the　French

Revolution　practically　nothing　has　remained　in　the　popular　mind

but　the　three　celebrated　words　which　sum　up　its　gospel；　and　which

its　armies　spread　over　Europe。







BOOK　II



THE　RATIONAL；　AFFECTIVE；　MYSTIC；　AND　COLLECTIVE　INFLUENCES　ACTIVE

DURING　THE　REVOLUTION



CHAPTER　I



THE　PSYCHOLOGY　OF　THE　CONSTITUENT　ASSEMBLY



1。　　Psychological　Influences　active　during　the　French　Revolution。



The　genesis　of　the　French　Revolution；　as　well　as　its　duration；

was　conditioned　by　elements　of　a　rational；　affective；　mystic；　and

collective　nature；　each　category　of　which　was　ruled　by　a

different　logic。　　It　is；　as　I　have　said；　because　they　have　not

been　able　to　dissociate　the　respective　influences　of　these

factors　that　so　many　historians　have　interpreted　this　period　so

indifferently



The　rational　element　usually　invoked　as　an　explanation　exerted　in

reality　but　a　very　slight　influence。　　It　prepared　the　way　for　the

Revolution；　but　maintained　it　only　at　the　outset；　while　it　was

still　exclusively　middle…class。　　Its　action　was　manifested　by

many　measures　of　the　time；　such　as　the　proposals　to　reform　the

taxes；　the　suppression　of　the　privileges　of　a　useless　nobility；

&c。



As　soon　as　the　Revolution　reached　the　people；　the　influence　of

the　rational　elements　speedily　vanished　before　that　of　the

affective　and　collective　elements。　　As　for　the　mystic　elements；

the　foundation　of　the　revolutionary　faith；　they　made　the　army

fanatical　and　propagated　the　new　belief　throughout　the　world。



We　shall　see　these　various　elements　as　they　appeared　in　events

and　in　the　psychology　of　individuals。　　Perhaps　the　most　important

was　the　mystic　element。　　The　Revolution　cannot　be　clearly

comprehendedwe　cannot　repeat　it　too　oftenunless　it　is

considered　as　the　formation　of　a　religious　belief。　　What　I　have

said　elsewhere　of　all　beliefs　applies　equally　to　the　Revolution。　

Referring；　for　instance；　to　the　chapter　on　the　Reformation；　the

reader　will　see　that　it　presents　more　than　one　analogy　with　the

Revolution。



Having　wasted　so　much　time　in　demonstrating　the　slight　rational

value　of　beliefs；　the　philosophers　are　to…day　beginning　to

understand　their　function　better。　　They　have　been　forced　to　admit

that　these　are　the　only　factors　which　possess　an　influence

sufficient　to　transform　all　the　elements　of　a　civilisation。



They　impose　themselves　on　men　apart　from　reason　and　have　the

power　to　polarise　men's　thoughts　and　feelings　in　one　direction。　

Pure　reason　had　never　such　a　power；　for　men　were　never

impassioned　by　reason。



The　religious　form　rapidly　assumed　by　the　Revolution　explains　its

power　of　expansion　and　the　prestige　which　it　possessed　and　has

retained。



Few　historians　have　understood　that　this　great　monument　ought　to

be　regarded　as　the　foundation　of　a　new　religion。　　The　penetrating

mind　of　Tocqueville；　I　believe；　was　the　first　to　perceive　as

much。



‘‘The　French　Revolution；''　he　wrote；　‘‘was　a　political　revolution

which　operated　in　the　manner　of　and　assumed　something　of　the

aspect　of　a　religious　revolution。　　See　by　what　regular　and

characteristic　traits　it　finally　resembled　the　latter：　not　only

did　it　spread　itself　far　and　wide　like　a　religious　revolution；

but；　like　the　latter；　it　spread　itself　by　means　of　preaching　and

propaganda。　　A　political　revolution　which　inspires　proselytes；

which　is　preached　as　passionately　to　foreigners　as　it　is

accomplished　at　home：　consider　what　a　novel　spectacle　was　this。''



The　religious　side　of　the　Revolution　being　granted；　the

accompanying　fury　and　devastation　are　easily　explained。　　History

shows　us　that　such　are　always　the　accompaniments　of　the　birth　of

religions。　　The　Revolution　was　therefore　certain　to　provoke　the

violence　and　intolerance　the　triumphant　deities　demand　from　their

adepts。　　It　overturned　all　Europe　for　twenty　years；　ruined

France；　caused　the　death　of　millions　of　men；　and　cost　the　country

several　invasions：　but　it　is　as　a　rule　only　at　the　cost　of　such

catastrophes　that　a　people　can　change　its　beliefs。



Although　the　mystic　element　is　always　the　foundation　of　beliefs；

certain　affective　and　rational　elements　are　quickly　added

thereto。　　A　belief　thus　serves　to　group　sentiments　and　passions

and　interests　which　belong　to　the　affective　domain。　　Reason　then

envelops　the　whole；　seeking　to　justify　events　in　which；　however；

it　played　no　part　whatever。



At　the　moment　of　the　Revolution　every　one；　according　to　his

aspirations；　dressed　the　new　belief　in　a　different　rational

vesture。　　The　peoples　saw　in　it　only　the　suppression　of　the

religious　and　political　despotisms　and　hierarchies　under

which　they　had　so　often　suffered。　　Writers　like　Goethe　and

thinkers　like　Kant　imagined　that　they　saw　in　it　the　triumph　of

reason。　　Foreigners　like　Humboldt　came　to　France　‘‘to　breathe　the

air　of　liberty　and　to　assist　at　the　obsequies　of　despotism。''



These　intellectual　illusions　did　not　last　long。　　The　evolution　of

the　drama　soon　revealed　the　true　foundations　of　the　dream。





2。　　Dissolution　of　the　Ancien　Regime。　　The　assembling　of　the

States　General。





Before　they　are　realised　in　action；　revolutions　are　sketched　out

in　men's　thoughts。　　Prepared　by　the　causes　already　studied；　the

French　Revolution　commenced　in　reality　with　the　reign　of　Louis

XVI。　　More　discontented　and　censorious　every　day；　the　middle

classes　added　claim　to　claim。　　Everybody　was　calling　for　reform。



Louis　XVI。　thoroughly　understood　the　utility　of　reform；　but　he

was　too　weak　to　impose　it　on　the　clergy　and　the　nobility。　　He

could　not　even　retain　his　reforming　ministers；　Malesherbes　and

Turgot。　　What　with　famines　and　increased　taxation；　the　poverty　of

all　classes　increased；　and　the　huge　pensions　drawn　by　the　Court

formed　a　shocking　contrast　to　the　general　distress。



The　notables　convoked　to　attempt　to　remedy　the　financial

situation　refused　a　system　of　equal　taxation；　and　granted　only

insignificant　reforms　which　the　Parliament　did　not　even　consent

to　register。　　It　had　to　be　dissolved。　　The　provincial　Parliaments

made　common　cause　with　that　of　Paris；　and　were　also　dissolved。　

But　they　led　opinion；　and　in　all　parts　of　France　promoted

the　demand　for　a　meeting　of　the　States　General；　which　had　not

been　convoked　for　nearly　two　hundred　years。



The　decision　was　taken：　　5；000；000　Frenchmen；　of　whom　100；000

were　ecclesiastics　and　150；000　nobles；　sent　their

representatives。　　There　were　in　all　1；200　deputies；　of　whom　578

were　of　the　Third　Estate；　consisting　chiefly　of　magistrates；

advocates；　and　physicians。　　Of　the　300　deputies　of　the　clergy；

200；　of　plebeian　origin；　threw　in　their　lot　with　the　Third　Estate

against　the　nobility　and　clergy。



From　the　first　sessions　a　psychological　conflict　broke　out

between　the　deputies　of　different　social　conditions　and

（therefore）　different　mentalities。　　The　magnificent　costumes　of

the　privileged　deputies　contrasted　in　a　humiliating　fashion　with

the　sombre　fashions　of　the　Third　Estate。



At　the　first　session　the　members　of　the　nobility　and　the　clergy

　were　covered；　according　to　the　prerogatives　of　their　class；

before　the　king。　　Those　of　the　Third　Estate　wished　to　imitate

them；　but　the　privileged　members　protested。　　On　the　following　day

more　protests　of　wounded　self…love　were　heard。　　The　deputies　of

the　Third　Estate　invited　those　of　the　nobility　and　the　clergy　who

were　sitting　in　separate　halls　to　join　them　for　the　verification

of　their　powers。　　The　nobles　refused。　　The　negotiations　lasted

more　than　a　month。　　Finally；　the　deputies　of　the　Third　Estate；　on

the　proposition　of　the　Abbe　Sieyes；　considering　that

they　represented　95　per　cent。　of　the　nation；　declared　themselves

constituted　as　a　National　Assembly。　　From　that　moment　the

Revolution　pursued　its　course。





3。　　The　Constituent　Assembly。





The　power　of　a　political　assembly　resides；　above　all；　in　the

weakness　of　its　adversaries。　　Astonished　by　the　slight　resistance

encountered；　and　carried　away　by　the　ascendancy　of　a　handful　of

orators；　the　Constituent　Assembly；　from　its　earliest　sessions；

spoke　and　acted　as　a　sovereign　body。　　Notably　it　arrogated　to

itself　the　power　of　decreeing　imposts；　a　serious　encroachment

upon　the　prerogatives　of　the　royal　power。



The　resistance　of　Louis　XVI。　was　feeble　enough。　　He　simply　had

the　hall　in　which　the　States　assembled　closed。　　The　deputies　then

met　in　the　hall　of　the　tennis…court；　and　took　the　oath　that　they

would　not　separate　until　the　Constitution　of　the　kingdom　was　an

established　fact。



The　majority　of　the　deputies　of　the　clergy　went　with　them。　　The

king　revoked　the　decision　of　the　Assembly；　and　ordered　the

deputies　to　retire。　　The　Marquis　de　Dreux…Breze；　the　Grand

Master　of　Ceremonies；　having　invited　them　to　obey　the　order　of

the　sovereign；　the　President　of　the　Assembly　declared　‘‘that　the

nation　assembled　cannot　receive　orders；''　and　Mirabeau　replied　to

the　envoy　of　the　sovereign　that；　being　united　by　the　will　of　the

people；　the　Assembly　would　only　withdraw　at　the　point　of　the

bayonet。　　Again　the　king　gave　way。



On　the　9th　of　June　the　meeting　of　deputies　took　the　title　of　the

Constituent　Assembly。　　For　the　first　time　in　centuries　the　king

was　forced　to　recognise　the　existence　of　a　new　power；　formerly

ignoredthat　of　the　people；　represented　by　its　elected

representatives。　　The　absolute　monarchy　was　no　more。



Feeling　himself　more　and　more　seriously　threatened；　Louis　XVI。

summoned　to　Versailles　a　number　of　regiments　composed　of　foreign

mercenaries。　　The　Assembly　demanded　the　withdrawal　of　the　troops。



The　king　refused；　and　dismissed　Necker；　replacing　him　by　the

Marshal　de　Broglie；　reputed　to　be　an　extremely　authoritative

person。