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the psychology of revolution-µÚ27ÕÂ

С˵£º the psychology of revolution ×ÖÊý£º ÿҳ3500×Ö

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social¡¡contract£»¡¡hatred¡¡of¡¡tyrants£»¡¡and¡¡popular¡¡sovereignty

formed¡¡the¡¡articles¡¡of¡¡a¡¡gospel¡¡which£»¡¡to¡¡its¡¡disciples£»¡¡was

above¡¡discussion¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡new¡¡truths¡¡had¡¡found¡¡apostles¡¡who¡¡were

certain¡¡of¡¡their¡¡power£»¡¡and¡¡who¡¡finally£»¡¡like¡¡believers¡¡all¡¡the

world¡¡over£»¡¡sought¡¡to¡¡impose¡¡them¡¡by¡¡force¡£¡¡¡¡No¡¡heed¡¡should¡¡be

taken¡¡of¡¡the¡¡opinion¡¡of¡¡unbelievers£»¡¡they¡¡all¡¡deserved¡¡to¡¡be

exterminated¡£



The¡¡hatred¡¡of¡¡heretics¡¡having¡¡been¡¡always£»¡¡as¡¡we¡¡have¡¡seen£»¡¡in

respect¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Reformation£»¡¡an¡¡irreducible¡¡characteristic¡¡of

great¡¡beliefs£»¡¡we¡¡can¡¡readily¡¡comprehend¡¡the¡¡intolerance¡¡of¡¡the

Jacobin¡¡religion¡£



The¡¡history¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Reformation¡¡proves¡¡also¡¡that¡¡the¡¡conflict

between¡¡two¡¡allied¡¡beliefs¡¡is¡¡very¡¡bitter¡£¡¡¡¡We¡¡must¡¡not£»

therefore£»¡¡be¡¡astonished¡¡that¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Convention¡¡the¡¡Jacobins

fought¡¡furiously¡¡against¡¡the¡¡other¡¡republicans£»¡¡whose¡¡faith

hardly¡¡differed¡¡from¡¡their¡¡own¡£



The¡¡propaganda¡¡of¡¡the¡¡new¡¡apostles¡¡was¡¡very¡¡energetic¡£¡¡¡¡To

convert¡¡the¡¡provinces¡¡they¡¡sent¡¡thither¡¡zealous¡¡disciples

escorted¡¡by¡¡guillotines¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡inquisitors¡¡of¡¡the¡¡new¡¡faith¡¡would

have¡¡no¡¡paltering¡¡with¡¡error¡£¡¡¡¡As¡¡Robespierre¡¡said£»¡¡¡®¡®The

republic¡¡is¡¡the¡¡destruction¡¡of¡¡everything¡¡that¡¡is¡¡opposed¡¡to

it¡£''¡¡¡¡What¡¡matter¡¡that¡¡the¡¡country¡¡refused¡¡to¡¡be¡¡regenerated£¿¡¡

It¡¡should¡¡be¡¡regenerated¡¡despite¡¡itself¡£¡¡¡¡¡®¡®We¡¡will¡¡make¡¡a

cemetery¡¡of¡¡France£»''¡¡said¡¡Carrier£»¡¡¡®¡®rather¡¡than¡¡fail¡¡to

regenerate¡¡it¡¡in¡¡our¡¡own¡¡way¡£''



The¡¡Jacobin¡¡policy¡¡derived¡¡from¡¡the¡¡new¡¡faith¡¡was¡¡very¡¡simple¡£¡¡

It¡¡consisted¡¡in¡¡a¡¡sort¡¡of¡¡equalitarian¡¡Socialism£»¡¡directed¡¡by¡¡a

dictatorship¡¡which¡¡would¡¡brook¡¡no¡¡opposition¡£



Of¡¡practical¡¡ideas¡¡consistent¡¡with¡¡the¡¡economic¡¡necessities¡¡and

the¡¡true¡¡nature¡¡of¡¡man£»¡¡the¡¡theorists¡¡who¡¡ruled¡¡France¡¡would¡¡have

nothing¡¡to¡¡say¡£¡¡¡¡Speech¡¡and¡¡the¡¡guillotine¡¡sufficed¡¡them¡£¡¡¡¡Their

speeches¡¡were¡¡childish¡£¡¡¡¡¡®¡®Never¡¡a¡¡fact£»''¡¡says¡¡Taine£»¡¡¡®¡®nothing

but¡¡abstractions£»¡¡strings¡¡of¡¡sentences¡¡about¡¡Nature£»¡¡reason£»¡¡the

people£»¡¡tyrants£»¡¡liberty£º¡¡like¡¡so¡¡many¡¡puffed¡­out¡¡balloons

uselessly¡¡jostling¡¡in¡¡space¡£¡¡¡¡If¡¡we¡¡did¡¡not¡¡know¡¡that¡¡it¡¡all

ended¡¡in¡¡practical¡¡and¡¡dreadful¡¡results£»¡¡we¡¡should¡¡think¡¡they

were¡¡games¡¡of¡¡logic£»¡¡school¡¡exercises£»¡¡academical¡¡demonstrations£»

ideological¡¡combinations¡£''



The¡¡theories¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Jacobins¡¡amounted¡¡practically¡¡to¡¡an¡¡absolute

tyranny¡£¡¡¡¡To¡¡them¡¡it¡¡seemed¡¡evident¡¡that¡¡a¡¡sovereign¡¡State¡¡must

be¡¡obeyed¡¡without¡¡discussion¡¡by¡¡citizens¡¡rendered¡¡equal¡¡as¡¡to

conditions¡¡and¡¡fortune¡£



The¡¡power¡¡with¡¡which¡¡they¡¡invested¡¡themselves¡¡was¡¡far¡¡greater

than¡¡that¡¡of¡¡the¡¡monarchs¡¡who¡¡had¡¡preceded¡¡them¡£¡¡¡¡They¡¡fixed¡¡the

prices¡¡of¡¡merchandise¡¡and¡¡arrogated¡¡the¡¡right¡¡to¡¡dispose¡¡of¡¡the

life¡¡and¡¡property¡¡of¡¡citizens¡£



Their¡¡confidence¡¡in¡¡the¡¡regenerative¡¡virtues¡¡of¡¡the¡¡revolutionary

faith¡¡was¡¡such¡¡that¡¡after¡¡having¡¡declared¡¡war¡¡upon¡¡kings¡¡they

declared¡¡war¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡gods¡£¡¡¡¡A¡¡calendar¡¡was¡¡established¡¡from

which¡¡the¡¡saints¡¡were¡¡banished¡£¡¡¡¡They¡¡created¡¡a¡¡new¡¡divinity£»

Reason£»¡¡whose¡¡worship¡¡was¡¡celebrated¡¡in¡¡Notre¡­Dame£»¡¡with

ceremonies¡¡which¡¡were¡¡in¡¡many¡¡ways¡¡identical¡¡with¡¡those¡¡of¡¡the

Catholic¡¡faith£»¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡altar¡¡of¡¡the¡¡¡®¡®late¡¡Holy¡¡Virgin¡£''¡¡¡¡This

cult¡¡lasted¡¡until¡¡Robespierre¡¡substituted¡¡a¡¡personal¡¡religion¡¡of

which¡¡he¡¡constituted¡¡himself¡¡the¡¡high¡¡priest¡£



The¡¡sole¡¡masters¡¡of¡¡France£»¡¡the¡¡Jacobins¡¡and¡¡their

disciples¡¡were¡¡able¡¡to¡¡plunder¡¡the¡¡country¡¡with¡¡impunity£»

although¡¡they¡¡were¡¡never¡¡in¡¡the¡¡majority¡¡anywhere¡£



Their¡¡numbers¡¡are¡¡not¡¡easy¡¡to¡¡determine¡¡exactly¡£¡¡¡¡We¡¡know¡¡only

that¡¡they¡¡were¡¡very¡¡small¡£¡¡¡¡Taine¡¡valued¡¡them¡¡at¡¡5£»000¡¡in¡¡Paris£»

among¡¡700£»000¡¡inhabitants£»¡¡in¡¡Besancon¡¡300¡¡among¡¡300£»000£»¡¡and

in¡¡all¡¡France¡¡about¡¡300£»000¡£



¡®¡®A¡¡small¡¡feudality¡¡of¡¡brigands£»¡¡set¡¡over¡¡a¡¡conquered¡¡France£»''

according¡¡to¡¡the¡¡words¡¡of¡¡the¡¡same¡¡author£»¡¡they¡¡were¡¡able£»¡¡in

spite¡¡of¡¡their¡¡small¡¡numbers£»¡¡to¡¡dominate¡¡the¡¡country£»¡¡and¡¡this

for¡¡several¡¡reasons¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡the¡¡first¡¡place£»¡¡their¡¡faith¡¡gave¡¡them¡¡a

considerable¡¡strength¡£¡¡¡¡Then£»¡¡because¡¡they¡¡represented¡¡the

Government£»¡¡and¡¡for¡¡centuries¡¡the¡¡French¡¡had¡¡obeyed¡¡those¡¡who

were¡¡in¡¡command¡£¡¡¡¡Finally£»¡¡because¡¡it¡¡was¡¡believed¡¡that¡¡to

overthrow¡¡them¡¡would¡¡be¡¡to¡¡bring¡¡back¡¡the¡¡ancien¡¡regime£»

which¡¡was¡¡greatly¡¡dreaded¡¡by¡¡the¡¡numerous¡¡purchasers¡¡of¡¡the

national¡¡domains¡£¡¡¡¡Their¡¡tyranny¡¡must¡¡have¡¡grown¡¡frightful¡¡indeed

to¡¡force¡¡so¡¡many¡¡departments¡¡to¡¡rise¡¡against¡¡them¡£



The¡¡first¡¡factor¡¡of¡¡their¡¡power¡¡was¡¡very¡¡important¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡the

conflict¡¡between¡¡powerful¡¡faiths¡¡and¡¡weak¡¡faiths¡¡victory¡¡never

falls¡¡to¡¡the¡¡latter¡£¡¡¡¡A¡¡powerful¡¡faith¡¡creates¡¡strong¡¡wills£»

which¡¡will¡¡always¡¡overpower¡¡weak¡¡wills¡£¡¡¡¡That¡¡the¡¡Jacobins

themselves¡¡did¡¡finally¡¡perish¡¡was¡¡because¡¡their¡¡accumulated

violence¡¡had¡¡bound¡¡together¡¡thousands¡¡of¡¡weak¡¡wills¡¡whose¡¡united

weight¡¡overbalanced¡¡their¡¡own¡¡strong¡¡wills¡£



It¡¡is¡¡true¡¡that¡¡the¡¡Girondists£»¡¡whom¡¡the¡¡Jacobins¡¡persecuted¡¡with

so¡¡much¡¡hatred£»¡¡had¡¡also¡¡well¡­established¡¡beliefs£»¡¡but¡¡in¡¡the

struggle¡¡which¡¡ensued¡¡their¡¡education¡¡told¡¡against¡¡them£»

together¡¡with¡¡their¡¡respect¡¡for¡¡certain¡¡traditions¡¡and¡¡the¡¡rights

of¡¡others£»¡¡scruples¡¡which¡¡did¡¡not¡¡in¡¡the¡¡least¡¡trouble¡¡their

adversaries¡£



¡®¡®The¡¡majority¡¡of¡¡the¡¡sentiments¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Girondists£»''¡¡writes

Emile¡¡Ollivier£»¡¡¡®¡®were¡¡delicate¡¡and¡¡generous£»¡¡those¡¡of¡¡the

Jacobin¡¡mob¡¡were¡¡low£»¡¡gross£»¡¡and¡¡brutal¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡name¡¡of¡¡Vergniaud£»

compared¡¡with¡¡that¡¡of¡¡the¡¡¡®divine'¡¡Marat£»¡¡measures¡¡a¡¡gulf¡¡which

nothing¡¡could¡¡span¡£''



Dominating¡¡the¡¡Convention¡¡at¡¡the¡¡outset¡¡by¡¡the¡¡superiority¡¡of

their¡¡talents¡¡and¡¡their¡¡eloquence£»¡¡the¡¡Girondists¡¡soon¡¡fell¡¡under

the¡¡domination¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Montagnardsworthless¡¡energumens£»¡¡who

carried¡¡little¡¡weight£»¡¡but¡¡were¡¡always¡¡active£»¡¡and¡¡who¡¡knew¡¡how

to¡¡excite¡¡the¡¡passions¡¡of¡¡the¡¡populace¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡was¡¡violence¡¡and¡¡not

talent¡¡that¡¡impressed¡¡the¡¡Assemblies¡£





3¡£¡¡¡¡Mental¡¡Characteristics¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Convention¡£





Beside¡¡the¡¡characteristics¡¡common¡¡to¡¡all¡¡assemblies¡¡there¡¡are

some¡¡created¡¡by¡¡influences¡¡of¡¡environment¡¡and¡¡circumstances£»

which¡¡give¡¡any¡¡particular¡¡assembly¡¡of¡¡men¡¡a¡¡special¡¡physiognomy¡£¡¡

Most¡¡of¡¡the¡¡characteristics¡¡observable¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Constituent¡¡and

Legislative¡¡Assemblies¡¡reappeared£»¡¡in¡¡an¡¡exaggerated¡¡form£»¡¡in¡¡the

Convention¡£



This¡¡Assembly¡¡comprised¡¡about¡¡seven¡¡hundred¡¡and¡¡fifty¡¡deputies£»

of¡¡whom¡¡rather¡¡more¡¡than¡¡a¡¡third¡¡had¡¡sat¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Constituent¡¡or

the¡¡Legislative¡¡Assembly¡£¡¡¡¡By¡¡terrorising¡¡the¡¡population¡¡the

Jacobins¡¡contrived¡¡to¡¡triumph¡¡at¡¡the¡¡elections¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡majority¡¡of

the¡¡electors£»¡¡six¡¡millions¡¡out¡¡of¡¡seven£»¡¡preferred¡¡to¡¡abstain

from¡¡voting¡£



As¡¡to¡¡the¡¡professions£»¡¡the¡¡Assembly¡¡contained¡¡a¡¡large¡¡number¡¡of

lawyers£»¡¡advocates£»¡¡notaries£»¡¡bailiffs£»¡¡ex¡­magistrates£»¡¡and¡¡a¡¡few

literary¡¡men¡£



The¡¡mentality¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Convention¡¡was¡¡not¡¡homogeneous¡£¡¡¡¡Now£»¡¡an

assembly¡¡composed¡¡of¡¡individuals¡¡of¡¡widely¡¡different¡¡characters

soon¡¡splits¡¡up¡¡into¡¡a¡¡number¡¡of¡¡groups¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Convention¡¡very

early¡¡contained¡¡threethe¡¡Gironde£»¡¡the¡¡Mountain£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Plain¡£¡¡

The¡¡constitutional¡¡monarchists¡¡had¡¡almost¡¡disappeared¡£



The¡¡Gironde¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Mountain£»¡¡extreme¡¡parties£»¡¡consisted¡¡of¡¡about

a¡¡hundred¡¡members¡¡apiece£»¡¡who¡¡successively¡¡became¡¡leaders¡£¡¡¡¡In

the¡¡Mountain¡¡were¡¡the¡¡most¡¡advanced¡¡members£º¡¡¡¡Couthon£»¡¡Herault

de¡¡Sechelles£»¡¡Danton£»¡¡Camille¡¡Desmoulins£»¡¡Marat£»¡¡Collot

d'Herbois£»¡¡Billaud¡­Varennes£»¡¡Barras£»¡¡Saint¡­Just£»¡¡Fouche£»

Tallien£»¡¡Carrier£»¡¡Robespierre£»¡¡&c¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡the¡¡Gironde¡¡were¡¡Brissot£»

Petion£»¡¡Condorcet£»¡¡Vergniaud£»¡¡&c¡£



The¡¡five¡¡hundred¡¡other¡¡members¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Assemblythat¡¡is£»¡¡the

great¡¡majorityconstituted¡¡what¡¡was¡¡known¡¡as¡¡the¡¡Plain¡£



This¡¡latter¡¡formed¡¡a¡¡floating¡¡mass£»¡¡silent£»¡¡undecided£»¡¡and¡¡timid£»

ready¡¡to¡¡follow¡¡every¡¡impulse¡¡and¡¡to¡¡be¡¡carried¡¡away¡¡by¡¡the

excitement¡¡of¡¡the¡¡moment¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡gave¡¡ear¡¡indifferently¡¡to¡¡the

stronger¡¡of¡¡the¡¡two¡¡preceding¡¡groups¡£¡¡¡¡After¡¡obeying¡¡the¡¡Gironde

for¡¡some¡¡time¡¡it¡¡allowed¡¡itself¡¡to¡¡be¡¡led¡¡away¡¡by¡¡the¡¡Mountain£»

when¡¡the¡¡latter¡¡triumphed¡¡over¡¡its¡¡enemy¡£¡¡¡¡This¡¡was¡¡a¡¡natural

consequence¡¡of¡¡the¡¡law¡¡already¡¡stated£»¡¡by¡¡which¡¡the¡¡weak

invariably¡¡fall¡¡under¡¡the¡¡dominion¡¡of¡¡the¡¡stronger¡¡wills¡£



The¡¡influence¡¡of¡¡great¡¡manipulators¡¡of¡¡men¡¡was¡¡displayed

in¡¡a¡¡high¡¡degree¡¡during¡¡the¡¡Convention¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡was¡¡constantly¡¡led¡¡by

a¡¡violent¡¡minority¡¡of¡¡narrow¡¡minds£»¡¡whose¡¡intense¡¡convictions

lent¡¡them¡¡great¡¡strength¡£



A¡¡brutal¡¡and¡¡audacious¡¡minority¡¡will¡¡always¡¡lead¡¡a¡¡fearful¡¡and

irresolute¡¡majority¡£¡¡¡¡This¡¡explains¡¡the¡¡constant¡¡tendency¡¡toward

extremes¡¡to¡¡be¡¡observed¡¡in¡¡all¡¡revolutionary¡¡assemblies¡£¡¡¡¡The

history¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Convention¡¡verifies¡¡once¡¡more¡¡the¡¡law¡¡of

acceleration¡¡studied¡¡in¡¡another¡¡chapter¡£



The¡¡men¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Convention¡¡were¡¡thus¡¡bound¡¡to¡¡pass¡¡from¡¡moderation

to¡¡greater¡¡and¡¡greater¡¡violence¡£¡¡¡¡Finally¡¡they¡¡decimated

themselves¡£¡¡¡¡Of¡¡the¡¡180¡¡Girondists¡¡who¡¡at¡¡the¡¡outset¡¡led¡¡the

Convention¡¡140¡¡were¡¡killed¡¡or¡¡fled£»¡¡and¡¡finally¡¡the¡¡most

fanatical¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Terrorists£»¡¡Robespierre£»¡¡reigned¡¡alone¡¡over¡¡a

terrified¡¡crowd¡¡of¡¡servile¡¡representatives¡£



Yet¡¡it¡¡was¡¡among¡¡the¡¡five¡¡hundred¡¡members¡¡of¡¡the¡¡majority£»

uncertain¡¡and¡¡floating¡¡as¡¡it¡¡was£»¡¡that¡¡the¡¡intelligence¡¡and

experience¡¡were¡¡to¡¡be¡¡found¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡technical¡¡committees¡¡to¡¡whom

the¡¡useful¡¡work¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Convention¡¡was¡¡due¡¡were¡¡recruited¡¡from¡¡the

Plain¡£



More¡¡or¡¡less¡¡indifferent¡¡to¡¡politics£»¡¡the¡¡members¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Plain

were¡¡chiefly¡¡anxious¡¡that¡¡no¡¡one¡¡should¡¡pay¡¡particular¡¡attention

to¡¡them¡£¡¡¡¡Shut¡¡up¡¡in¡¡their¡¡committees£»¡¡they¡¡showed¡¡themselves¡¡as

little¡¡as¡¡possible¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Assembly£»¡¡which¡¡explains¡¡why¡¡the

sessions¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Convention¡¡contained¡¡barely¡¡a¡¡third¡¡of¡¡the

deputies¡£



Unhappily£»¡¡as¡¡often¡¡happens£»¡¡these¡¡intelligent¡¡and¡¡honest¡¡men

were¡¡completely¡¡devoid¡¡of¡¡character£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡fear¡¡which¡¡always

dominated¡¡them¡¡made¡¡them¡¡vote¡¡for¡¡the¡¡worst¡¡of¡¡the

measures¡¡introduced¡¡by¡¡their¡¡dreaded¡¡masters¡£



The¡¡men¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Plain¡¡voted¡¡for¡¡everything¡¡they¡¡were¡¡ordered¡¡to

vote¡¡forthe¡¡creation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Revolutionary¡¡Tribunal£»¡¡the¡¡Terror£»

&c¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡was¡¡with¡¡their¡¡assistance¡¡that¡¡the¡¡Mountain¡¡crushed¡¡the

Gironde£»¡¡and¡¡Robespierre¡¡destroyed¡¡the¡¡Hebertists¡¡and

Dantonists¡£¡¡¡¡Like¡¡all¡¡weak¡¡people£»¡¡they¡¡followed¡¡the¡¡strong¡£¡¡¡¡The

gentle¡¡philanthropists¡¡who¡¡composed¡¡the¡¡Plain£»¡¡and¡¡constituted

the¡¡majority¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Assembly£»¡¡contributed£»¡¡by¡¡their

pusillanimity£»¡¡to¡¡bring¡¡about¡¡the¡¡frightful¡¡excesses¡¡of¡¡the

Convention¡£



The¡¡psychological¡¡note¡¡always¡¡prevailing¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Convention¡¡was¡¡a

horrible¡¡fear¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡was¡¡more¡¡especially¡¡through¡¡fear¡¡that¡¡men¡¡cut

off¡¡one¡¡another's¡¡heads£»¡¡in¡¡the¡¡doubtful¡¡hope¡¡of¡¡keeping¡¡their

own¡¡on¡¡their¡¡shoulders¡£



Such¡¡a¡¡fear¡¡was£»¡¡of¡¡course£»¡¡very¡¡comprehensible¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡unhappy

deputies¡¡deliberated¡¡amid¡¡the¡¡hootings¡¡and¡¡vociferations¡¡of¡¡the

tribunes¡£¡¡¡¡At¡¡every¡¡moment¡¡veritable¡¡savages£»¡¡armed¡¡with¡¡pikes£»

invaded¡¡the¡¡Assembly£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡majority¡¡of¡¡the¡¡members¡¡no¡¡longer

dared¡¡to¡¡attend¡¡the¡¡sessions¡£¡¡¡¡When¡¡by¡¡chance¡¡they¡¡did¡¡go¡¡it¡¡was

only¡¡to¡¡vote¡¡in¡¡silence¡¡according¡¡to¡¡the¡¡orders¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Mountain£»

which¡¡was¡¡only¡¡a¡¡third¡¡as¡¡numerous¡£



The¡¡fear¡¡which¡¡dominated¡¡the¡¡latter£»¡¡although¡¡less¡¡visible£»¡¡was

just¡¡as¡¡profound¡£¡¡¡¡Men¡¡destroyed¡¡their¡¡enemies£»¡¡not¡¡only¡¡because

they¡¡were¡¡shallow¡¡fanatics£»¡¡but¡¡because¡¡the

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