the psychology of revolution-µÚ27ÕÂ
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¡ª¡ª¡ª¡ªÎ´ÔĶÁÍꣿ¼ÓÈëÊéÇ©ÒѱãÏ´μÌÐøÔĶÁ£¡
social¡¡contract£»¡¡hatred¡¡of¡¡tyrants£»¡¡and¡¡popular¡¡sovereignty
formed¡¡the¡¡articles¡¡of¡¡a¡¡gospel¡¡which£»¡¡to¡¡its¡¡disciples£»¡¡was
above¡¡discussion¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡new¡¡truths¡¡had¡¡found¡¡apostles¡¡who¡¡were
certain¡¡of¡¡their¡¡power£»¡¡and¡¡who¡¡finally£»¡¡like¡¡believers¡¡all¡¡the
world¡¡over£»¡¡sought¡¡to¡¡impose¡¡them¡¡by¡¡force¡£¡¡¡¡No¡¡heed¡¡should¡¡be
taken¡¡of¡¡the¡¡opinion¡¡of¡¡unbelievers£»¡¡they¡¡all¡¡deserved¡¡to¡¡be
exterminated¡£
The¡¡hatred¡¡of¡¡heretics¡¡having¡¡been¡¡always£»¡¡as¡¡we¡¡have¡¡seen£»¡¡in
respect¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Reformation£»¡¡an¡¡irreducible¡¡characteristic¡¡of
great¡¡beliefs£»¡¡we¡¡can¡¡readily¡¡comprehend¡¡the¡¡intolerance¡¡of¡¡the
Jacobin¡¡religion¡£
The¡¡history¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Reformation¡¡proves¡¡also¡¡that¡¡the¡¡conflict
between¡¡two¡¡allied¡¡beliefs¡¡is¡¡very¡¡bitter¡£¡¡¡¡We¡¡must¡¡not£»
therefore£»¡¡be¡¡astonished¡¡that¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Convention¡¡the¡¡Jacobins
fought¡¡furiously¡¡against¡¡the¡¡other¡¡republicans£»¡¡whose¡¡faith
hardly¡¡differed¡¡from¡¡their¡¡own¡£
The¡¡propaganda¡¡of¡¡the¡¡new¡¡apostles¡¡was¡¡very¡¡energetic¡£¡¡¡¡To
convert¡¡the¡¡provinces¡¡they¡¡sent¡¡thither¡¡zealous¡¡disciples
escorted¡¡by¡¡guillotines¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡inquisitors¡¡of¡¡the¡¡new¡¡faith¡¡would
have¡¡no¡¡paltering¡¡with¡¡error¡£¡¡¡¡As¡¡Robespierre¡¡said£»¡¡¡®¡®The
republic¡¡is¡¡the¡¡destruction¡¡of¡¡everything¡¡that¡¡is¡¡opposed¡¡to
it¡£''¡¡¡¡What¡¡matter¡¡that¡¡the¡¡country¡¡refused¡¡to¡¡be¡¡regenerated£¿¡¡
It¡¡should¡¡be¡¡regenerated¡¡despite¡¡itself¡£¡¡¡¡¡®¡®We¡¡will¡¡make¡¡a
cemetery¡¡of¡¡France£»''¡¡said¡¡Carrier£»¡¡¡®¡®rather¡¡than¡¡fail¡¡to
regenerate¡¡it¡¡in¡¡our¡¡own¡¡way¡£''
The¡¡Jacobin¡¡policy¡¡derived¡¡from¡¡the¡¡new¡¡faith¡¡was¡¡very¡¡simple¡£¡¡
It¡¡consisted¡¡in¡¡a¡¡sort¡¡of¡¡equalitarian¡¡Socialism£»¡¡directed¡¡by¡¡a
dictatorship¡¡which¡¡would¡¡brook¡¡no¡¡opposition¡£
Of¡¡practical¡¡ideas¡¡consistent¡¡with¡¡the¡¡economic¡¡necessities¡¡and
the¡¡true¡¡nature¡¡of¡¡man£»¡¡the¡¡theorists¡¡who¡¡ruled¡¡France¡¡would¡¡have
nothing¡¡to¡¡say¡£¡¡¡¡Speech¡¡and¡¡the¡¡guillotine¡¡sufficed¡¡them¡£¡¡¡¡Their
speeches¡¡were¡¡childish¡£¡¡¡¡¡®¡®Never¡¡a¡¡fact£»''¡¡says¡¡Taine£»¡¡¡®¡®nothing
but¡¡abstractions£»¡¡strings¡¡of¡¡sentences¡¡about¡¡Nature£»¡¡reason£»¡¡the
people£»¡¡tyrants£»¡¡liberty£º¡¡like¡¡so¡¡many¡¡puffed¡out¡¡balloons
uselessly¡¡jostling¡¡in¡¡space¡£¡¡¡¡If¡¡we¡¡did¡¡not¡¡know¡¡that¡¡it¡¡all
ended¡¡in¡¡practical¡¡and¡¡dreadful¡¡results£»¡¡we¡¡should¡¡think¡¡they
were¡¡games¡¡of¡¡logic£»¡¡school¡¡exercises£»¡¡academical¡¡demonstrations£»
ideological¡¡combinations¡£''
The¡¡theories¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Jacobins¡¡amounted¡¡practically¡¡to¡¡an¡¡absolute
tyranny¡£¡¡¡¡To¡¡them¡¡it¡¡seemed¡¡evident¡¡that¡¡a¡¡sovereign¡¡State¡¡must
be¡¡obeyed¡¡without¡¡discussion¡¡by¡¡citizens¡¡rendered¡¡equal¡¡as¡¡to
conditions¡¡and¡¡fortune¡£
The¡¡power¡¡with¡¡which¡¡they¡¡invested¡¡themselves¡¡was¡¡far¡¡greater
than¡¡that¡¡of¡¡the¡¡monarchs¡¡who¡¡had¡¡preceded¡¡them¡£¡¡¡¡They¡¡fixed¡¡the
prices¡¡of¡¡merchandise¡¡and¡¡arrogated¡¡the¡¡right¡¡to¡¡dispose¡¡of¡¡the
life¡¡and¡¡property¡¡of¡¡citizens¡£
Their¡¡confidence¡¡in¡¡the¡¡regenerative¡¡virtues¡¡of¡¡the¡¡revolutionary
faith¡¡was¡¡such¡¡that¡¡after¡¡having¡¡declared¡¡war¡¡upon¡¡kings¡¡they
declared¡¡war¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡gods¡£¡¡¡¡A¡¡calendar¡¡was¡¡established¡¡from
which¡¡the¡¡saints¡¡were¡¡banished¡£¡¡¡¡They¡¡created¡¡a¡¡new¡¡divinity£»
Reason£»¡¡whose¡¡worship¡¡was¡¡celebrated¡¡in¡¡Notre¡Dame£»¡¡with
ceremonies¡¡which¡¡were¡¡in¡¡many¡¡ways¡¡identical¡¡with¡¡those¡¡of¡¡the
Catholic¡¡faith£»¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡altar¡¡of¡¡the¡¡¡®¡®late¡¡Holy¡¡Virgin¡£''¡¡¡¡This
cult¡¡lasted¡¡until¡¡Robespierre¡¡substituted¡¡a¡¡personal¡¡religion¡¡of
which¡¡he¡¡constituted¡¡himself¡¡the¡¡high¡¡priest¡£
The¡¡sole¡¡masters¡¡of¡¡France£»¡¡the¡¡Jacobins¡¡and¡¡their
disciples¡¡were¡¡able¡¡to¡¡plunder¡¡the¡¡country¡¡with¡¡impunity£»
although¡¡they¡¡were¡¡never¡¡in¡¡the¡¡majority¡¡anywhere¡£
Their¡¡numbers¡¡are¡¡not¡¡easy¡¡to¡¡determine¡¡exactly¡£¡¡¡¡We¡¡know¡¡only
that¡¡they¡¡were¡¡very¡¡small¡£¡¡¡¡Taine¡¡valued¡¡them¡¡at¡¡5£»000¡¡in¡¡Paris£»
among¡¡700£»000¡¡inhabitants£»¡¡in¡¡Besancon¡¡300¡¡among¡¡300£»000£»¡¡and
in¡¡all¡¡France¡¡about¡¡300£»000¡£
¡®¡®A¡¡small¡¡feudality¡¡of¡¡brigands£»¡¡set¡¡over¡¡a¡¡conquered¡¡France£»''
according¡¡to¡¡the¡¡words¡¡of¡¡the¡¡same¡¡author£»¡¡they¡¡were¡¡able£»¡¡in
spite¡¡of¡¡their¡¡small¡¡numbers£»¡¡to¡¡dominate¡¡the¡¡country£»¡¡and¡¡this
for¡¡several¡¡reasons¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡the¡¡first¡¡place£»¡¡their¡¡faith¡¡gave¡¡them¡¡a
considerable¡¡strength¡£¡¡¡¡Then£»¡¡because¡¡they¡¡represented¡¡the
Government£»¡¡and¡¡for¡¡centuries¡¡the¡¡French¡¡had¡¡obeyed¡¡those¡¡who
were¡¡in¡¡command¡£¡¡¡¡Finally£»¡¡because¡¡it¡¡was¡¡believed¡¡that¡¡to
overthrow¡¡them¡¡would¡¡be¡¡to¡¡bring¡¡back¡¡the¡¡ancien¡¡regime£»
which¡¡was¡¡greatly¡¡dreaded¡¡by¡¡the¡¡numerous¡¡purchasers¡¡of¡¡the
national¡¡domains¡£¡¡¡¡Their¡¡tyranny¡¡must¡¡have¡¡grown¡¡frightful¡¡indeed
to¡¡force¡¡so¡¡many¡¡departments¡¡to¡¡rise¡¡against¡¡them¡£
The¡¡first¡¡factor¡¡of¡¡their¡¡power¡¡was¡¡very¡¡important¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡the
conflict¡¡between¡¡powerful¡¡faiths¡¡and¡¡weak¡¡faiths¡¡victory¡¡never
falls¡¡to¡¡the¡¡latter¡£¡¡¡¡A¡¡powerful¡¡faith¡¡creates¡¡strong¡¡wills£»
which¡¡will¡¡always¡¡overpower¡¡weak¡¡wills¡£¡¡¡¡That¡¡the¡¡Jacobins
themselves¡¡did¡¡finally¡¡perish¡¡was¡¡because¡¡their¡¡accumulated
violence¡¡had¡¡bound¡¡together¡¡thousands¡¡of¡¡weak¡¡wills¡¡whose¡¡united
weight¡¡overbalanced¡¡their¡¡own¡¡strong¡¡wills¡£
It¡¡is¡¡true¡¡that¡¡the¡¡Girondists£»¡¡whom¡¡the¡¡Jacobins¡¡persecuted¡¡with
so¡¡much¡¡hatred£»¡¡had¡¡also¡¡well¡established¡¡beliefs£»¡¡but¡¡in¡¡the
struggle¡¡which¡¡ensued¡¡their¡¡education¡¡told¡¡against¡¡them£»
together¡¡with¡¡their¡¡respect¡¡for¡¡certain¡¡traditions¡¡and¡¡the¡¡rights
of¡¡others£»¡¡scruples¡¡which¡¡did¡¡not¡¡in¡¡the¡¡least¡¡trouble¡¡their
adversaries¡£
¡®¡®The¡¡majority¡¡of¡¡the¡¡sentiments¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Girondists£»''¡¡writes
Emile¡¡Ollivier£»¡¡¡®¡®were¡¡delicate¡¡and¡¡generous£»¡¡those¡¡of¡¡the
Jacobin¡¡mob¡¡were¡¡low£»¡¡gross£»¡¡and¡¡brutal¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡name¡¡of¡¡Vergniaud£»
compared¡¡with¡¡that¡¡of¡¡the¡¡¡®divine'¡¡Marat£»¡¡measures¡¡a¡¡gulf¡¡which
nothing¡¡could¡¡span¡£''
Dominating¡¡the¡¡Convention¡¡at¡¡the¡¡outset¡¡by¡¡the¡¡superiority¡¡of
their¡¡talents¡¡and¡¡their¡¡eloquence£»¡¡the¡¡Girondists¡¡soon¡¡fell¡¡under
the¡¡domination¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Montagnardsworthless¡¡energumens£»¡¡who
carried¡¡little¡¡weight£»¡¡but¡¡were¡¡always¡¡active£»¡¡and¡¡who¡¡knew¡¡how
to¡¡excite¡¡the¡¡passions¡¡of¡¡the¡¡populace¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡was¡¡violence¡¡and¡¡not
talent¡¡that¡¡impressed¡¡the¡¡Assemblies¡£
3¡£¡¡¡¡Mental¡¡Characteristics¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Convention¡£
Beside¡¡the¡¡characteristics¡¡common¡¡to¡¡all¡¡assemblies¡¡there¡¡are
some¡¡created¡¡by¡¡influences¡¡of¡¡environment¡¡and¡¡circumstances£»
which¡¡give¡¡any¡¡particular¡¡assembly¡¡of¡¡men¡¡a¡¡special¡¡physiognomy¡£¡¡
Most¡¡of¡¡the¡¡characteristics¡¡observable¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Constituent¡¡and
Legislative¡¡Assemblies¡¡reappeared£»¡¡in¡¡an¡¡exaggerated¡¡form£»¡¡in¡¡the
Convention¡£
This¡¡Assembly¡¡comprised¡¡about¡¡seven¡¡hundred¡¡and¡¡fifty¡¡deputies£»
of¡¡whom¡¡rather¡¡more¡¡than¡¡a¡¡third¡¡had¡¡sat¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Constituent¡¡or
the¡¡Legislative¡¡Assembly¡£¡¡¡¡By¡¡terrorising¡¡the¡¡population¡¡the
Jacobins¡¡contrived¡¡to¡¡triumph¡¡at¡¡the¡¡elections¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡majority¡¡of
the¡¡electors£»¡¡six¡¡millions¡¡out¡¡of¡¡seven£»¡¡preferred¡¡to¡¡abstain
from¡¡voting¡£
As¡¡to¡¡the¡¡professions£»¡¡the¡¡Assembly¡¡contained¡¡a¡¡large¡¡number¡¡of
lawyers£»¡¡advocates£»¡¡notaries£»¡¡bailiffs£»¡¡ex¡magistrates£»¡¡and¡¡a¡¡few
literary¡¡men¡£
The¡¡mentality¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Convention¡¡was¡¡not¡¡homogeneous¡£¡¡¡¡Now£»¡¡an
assembly¡¡composed¡¡of¡¡individuals¡¡of¡¡widely¡¡different¡¡characters
soon¡¡splits¡¡up¡¡into¡¡a¡¡number¡¡of¡¡groups¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Convention¡¡very
early¡¡contained¡¡threethe¡¡Gironde£»¡¡the¡¡Mountain£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Plain¡£¡¡
The¡¡constitutional¡¡monarchists¡¡had¡¡almost¡¡disappeared¡£
The¡¡Gironde¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Mountain£»¡¡extreme¡¡parties£»¡¡consisted¡¡of¡¡about
a¡¡hundred¡¡members¡¡apiece£»¡¡who¡¡successively¡¡became¡¡leaders¡£¡¡¡¡In
the¡¡Mountain¡¡were¡¡the¡¡most¡¡advanced¡¡members£º¡¡¡¡Couthon£»¡¡Herault
de¡¡Sechelles£»¡¡Danton£»¡¡Camille¡¡Desmoulins£»¡¡Marat£»¡¡Collot
d'Herbois£»¡¡Billaud¡Varennes£»¡¡Barras£»¡¡Saint¡Just£»¡¡Fouche£»
Tallien£»¡¡Carrier£»¡¡Robespierre£»¡¡&c¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡the¡¡Gironde¡¡were¡¡Brissot£»
Petion£»¡¡Condorcet£»¡¡Vergniaud£»¡¡&c¡£
The¡¡five¡¡hundred¡¡other¡¡members¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Assemblythat¡¡is£»¡¡the
great¡¡majorityconstituted¡¡what¡¡was¡¡known¡¡as¡¡the¡¡Plain¡£
This¡¡latter¡¡formed¡¡a¡¡floating¡¡mass£»¡¡silent£»¡¡undecided£»¡¡and¡¡timid£»
ready¡¡to¡¡follow¡¡every¡¡impulse¡¡and¡¡to¡¡be¡¡carried¡¡away¡¡by¡¡the
excitement¡¡of¡¡the¡¡moment¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡gave¡¡ear¡¡indifferently¡¡to¡¡the
stronger¡¡of¡¡the¡¡two¡¡preceding¡¡groups¡£¡¡¡¡After¡¡obeying¡¡the¡¡Gironde
for¡¡some¡¡time¡¡it¡¡allowed¡¡itself¡¡to¡¡be¡¡led¡¡away¡¡by¡¡the¡¡Mountain£»
when¡¡the¡¡latter¡¡triumphed¡¡over¡¡its¡¡enemy¡£¡¡¡¡This¡¡was¡¡a¡¡natural
consequence¡¡of¡¡the¡¡law¡¡already¡¡stated£»¡¡by¡¡which¡¡the¡¡weak
invariably¡¡fall¡¡under¡¡the¡¡dominion¡¡of¡¡the¡¡stronger¡¡wills¡£
The¡¡influence¡¡of¡¡great¡¡manipulators¡¡of¡¡men¡¡was¡¡displayed
in¡¡a¡¡high¡¡degree¡¡during¡¡the¡¡Convention¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡was¡¡constantly¡¡led¡¡by
a¡¡violent¡¡minority¡¡of¡¡narrow¡¡minds£»¡¡whose¡¡intense¡¡convictions
lent¡¡them¡¡great¡¡strength¡£
A¡¡brutal¡¡and¡¡audacious¡¡minority¡¡will¡¡always¡¡lead¡¡a¡¡fearful¡¡and
irresolute¡¡majority¡£¡¡¡¡This¡¡explains¡¡the¡¡constant¡¡tendency¡¡toward
extremes¡¡to¡¡be¡¡observed¡¡in¡¡all¡¡revolutionary¡¡assemblies¡£¡¡¡¡The
history¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Convention¡¡verifies¡¡once¡¡more¡¡the¡¡law¡¡of
acceleration¡¡studied¡¡in¡¡another¡¡chapter¡£
The¡¡men¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Convention¡¡were¡¡thus¡¡bound¡¡to¡¡pass¡¡from¡¡moderation
to¡¡greater¡¡and¡¡greater¡¡violence¡£¡¡¡¡Finally¡¡they¡¡decimated
themselves¡£¡¡¡¡Of¡¡the¡¡180¡¡Girondists¡¡who¡¡at¡¡the¡¡outset¡¡led¡¡the
Convention¡¡140¡¡were¡¡killed¡¡or¡¡fled£»¡¡and¡¡finally¡¡the¡¡most
fanatical¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Terrorists£»¡¡Robespierre£»¡¡reigned¡¡alone¡¡over¡¡a
terrified¡¡crowd¡¡of¡¡servile¡¡representatives¡£
Yet¡¡it¡¡was¡¡among¡¡the¡¡five¡¡hundred¡¡members¡¡of¡¡the¡¡majority£»
uncertain¡¡and¡¡floating¡¡as¡¡it¡¡was£»¡¡that¡¡the¡¡intelligence¡¡and
experience¡¡were¡¡to¡¡be¡¡found¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡technical¡¡committees¡¡to¡¡whom
the¡¡useful¡¡work¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Convention¡¡was¡¡due¡¡were¡¡recruited¡¡from¡¡the
Plain¡£
More¡¡or¡¡less¡¡indifferent¡¡to¡¡politics£»¡¡the¡¡members¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Plain
were¡¡chiefly¡¡anxious¡¡that¡¡no¡¡one¡¡should¡¡pay¡¡particular¡¡attention
to¡¡them¡£¡¡¡¡Shut¡¡up¡¡in¡¡their¡¡committees£»¡¡they¡¡showed¡¡themselves¡¡as
little¡¡as¡¡possible¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Assembly£»¡¡which¡¡explains¡¡why¡¡the
sessions¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Convention¡¡contained¡¡barely¡¡a¡¡third¡¡of¡¡the
deputies¡£
Unhappily£»¡¡as¡¡often¡¡happens£»¡¡these¡¡intelligent¡¡and¡¡honest¡¡men
were¡¡completely¡¡devoid¡¡of¡¡character£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡fear¡¡which¡¡always
dominated¡¡them¡¡made¡¡them¡¡vote¡¡for¡¡the¡¡worst¡¡of¡¡the
measures¡¡introduced¡¡by¡¡their¡¡dreaded¡¡masters¡£
The¡¡men¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Plain¡¡voted¡¡for¡¡everything¡¡they¡¡were¡¡ordered¡¡to
vote¡¡forthe¡¡creation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Revolutionary¡¡Tribunal£»¡¡the¡¡Terror£»
&c¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡was¡¡with¡¡their¡¡assistance¡¡that¡¡the¡¡Mountain¡¡crushed¡¡the
Gironde£»¡¡and¡¡Robespierre¡¡destroyed¡¡the¡¡Hebertists¡¡and
Dantonists¡£¡¡¡¡Like¡¡all¡¡weak¡¡people£»¡¡they¡¡followed¡¡the¡¡strong¡£¡¡¡¡The
gentle¡¡philanthropists¡¡who¡¡composed¡¡the¡¡Plain£»¡¡and¡¡constituted
the¡¡majority¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Assembly£»¡¡contributed£»¡¡by¡¡their
pusillanimity£»¡¡to¡¡bring¡¡about¡¡the¡¡frightful¡¡excesses¡¡of¡¡the
Convention¡£
The¡¡psychological¡¡note¡¡always¡¡prevailing¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Convention¡¡was¡¡a
horrible¡¡fear¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡was¡¡more¡¡especially¡¡through¡¡fear¡¡that¡¡men¡¡cut
off¡¡one¡¡another's¡¡heads£»¡¡in¡¡the¡¡doubtful¡¡hope¡¡of¡¡keeping¡¡their
own¡¡on¡¡their¡¡shoulders¡£
Such¡¡a¡¡fear¡¡was£»¡¡of¡¡course£»¡¡very¡¡comprehensible¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡unhappy
deputies¡¡deliberated¡¡amid¡¡the¡¡hootings¡¡and¡¡vociferations¡¡of¡¡the
tribunes¡£¡¡¡¡At¡¡every¡¡moment¡¡veritable¡¡savages£»¡¡armed¡¡with¡¡pikes£»
invaded¡¡the¡¡Assembly£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡majority¡¡of¡¡the¡¡members¡¡no¡¡longer
dared¡¡to¡¡attend¡¡the¡¡sessions¡£¡¡¡¡When¡¡by¡¡chance¡¡they¡¡did¡¡go¡¡it¡¡was
only¡¡to¡¡vote¡¡in¡¡silence¡¡according¡¡to¡¡the¡¡orders¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Mountain£»
which¡¡was¡¡only¡¡a¡¡third¡¡as¡¡numerous¡£
The¡¡fear¡¡which¡¡dominated¡¡the¡¡latter£»¡¡although¡¡less¡¡visible£»¡¡was
just¡¡as¡¡profound¡£¡¡¡¡Men¡¡destroyed¡¡their¡¡enemies£»¡¡not¡¡only¡¡because
they¡¡were¡¡shallow¡¡fanatics£»¡¡but¡¡because¡¡the