the psychology of revolution-第29章

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closed。



Thanks　to　them；　the　work　of　the　Convention　was　not　purely

destructive。　　They　drafted　many　very　useful　measures；　creating

important　colleges；　establishing　the　metric　system；　&c。　　The

majority　of　the　members　of　the　Assembly；　as　we　have　already　seen；

took　refuge　in　these　committees　in　order　to　evade　the　political

conflict　which　would　have　endangered　their　heads。



Above　the　business　committees；　which　had　nothing　to　do　with

politics；　was　the　Committee　of　Public　Safety；　instituted　in

April；　1793；　and　composed　of　nine　members。　　Directed　at　first　by

Danton；　and　in　the　July　of　the　same　year　by　Robespierre；　it

gradually　absorbed　all　the　powers　of　government；　including　that

of　giving　orders　to　ministers　and　generals。　　Carnot　directed　the

operations　of　the　war；　Cambon　the　finances；　and　Saint…Just　and

Collot…d'Herbois　the　general　policy。



Although　the　laws　voted　by　the　technical　committees　were　often

very　wise；　and　constituted　the　lasting　work　of　the　Convention；

those　which　the　Assembly　voted　in　a　body　under　the　threats　of　the

delegations　which　invaded　it　were　manifestly　ridiculous。



Among　these　laws；　which　were　not　greatly　in　the　interests　of　the

public　or　of　the　Convention　itself；　were　the　law　of　the　maximum；

voted　in　September；　1793；　which　pretended　to　fix　the　price　of

provisions；　and　which　merely　established　a　continual　dearth；　the

destruction　of　the　royal　tombs　at　Saint…Denis；　the　trial

of　the　queen；　the　systematic　devastation　of　the　Vendee　by

fire；　the　establishment　of　the　Revolutionary　Tribunal；　&c。



The　Terror　was　the　chief　means　of　government　during　the

Convention。　　Commencing　in　September；　1793；　it　reigned　for　six

monthsthat　is；　until　the　death　of　Robespierre。　　Vainly　did

certain　Jacobins　Danton；　Camille　Desmoulins；　Herault　de

Sechelles；　&c。propose　that　clemency　should　be　given　a　trial。　

The　only　result　of　this　proposition　was　that　its　authors　were

sent　to　the　scaffold。　　It　was　merely　the　lassitude　of　the　public

that　finally　put　an　end　to　this　shameful　period。



The　successive　struggles　of　the　various　parties　in　the　Convention

and　its　tendency　towards　extremes　eliminated　one　by　one　the　men

of　importance　who　had　once　played　their　part　therein。　　Finally　it

fell　under　the　exclusive　domination　of　Robespierre。　　While　the

Convention　was　disorganising　and　ravaging　France；　the　armies　were

winning　brilliant　victories。　　They　had　seized　the　left　bank　of

the　Rhine；　Belgium；　and　Holland。　　The　treaty　of　Basle　ratified

these　conquests。



We　have　already　mentioned；　and　we　shall　return　to　the　matter

again；　that　the　work　of　the　armies　must　be　considered　absolutely

apart　from　that　of　the　Convention。　　Contemporaries　understood

this　perfectly；　but　to…day　it　is　often　forgotten。



When　the　Convention　was　dissolved；　in　1795；　after　lasting　for

three　years；　it　was　regarded　with　universal　distrust。　　The

perpetual　plaything　of　popular　caprice；　it　had　not　succeeded　in

pacifying　France；　but　had　plunged　her　into　anarchy。　　The

general　opinion　respecting　the　Convention　is　well　summed　up　in　a

letter　written　in　July；　1799；　by　the　Swedish　charge

d'affaires；　Baron　Drinkmann：　　‘‘I　venture　to　hope　that　no　people

will　ever　be　governed　by　the　will　of　more　cruel　and　imbecile

scoundrels　than　those　that　have　ruled　France　since　the　beginning

of　her　new　liberty。''





3。　　The　End　of　the　Convention。　　The　Beginnings　of　the　Directory。





At　the　end　of　its　existence；　the　Convention；　always　trusting　to

the　power　of　formulae；　drafted　a　new　Constitution；　that　of　the

year　III。；　intended　to　replace　that　of　1793；　which　had　never　been

put　into　execution。　　The　legislative　power　was　to　be　shared　by　a

so…called　Council　of　Ancients　composed　of　150　members；　and　a

council　of　deputies　numbering　500。　　The　executive　power　was

confided　to　a　Directory　of　five　members；　who　were　appointed　by

the　Ancients　upon　nomination　by　the　Five　Hundred；　and　renewed

every　year　by　the　election　of　one　of　their　number。　　It　was

specified　that　two…thirds　of　the　members　of　the　new　Assembly

should　be　chosen　from　among　the　deputies　of　the　Convention。　　This

prudent　measure　was　not　very　efficacious；　as　only　ten　departments

remained　faithful　to　the　Jacobins。



To　avoid　the　election　of　royalists；　the　Convention　had　decided　to

banish　all　emigres　in　perpetuity。



The　announcement　of　this　Constitution　did　not　produce　the

anticipated　effect　upon　the　public。　　It　had　no　effect　upon　the

popular　riots；　which　continued。　　One　of　the　most　important　was

that　which　threatened　the　Convention　on　the　5th　of　October；　1795。



The　leaders　hurled　a　veritable　army　upon　the　Assembly。　

Before　such　provocation；　the　Convention　finally　decided　to　defend

itself；　and　sent　for　troops；　entrusting　the　command　to　Barras。



Bonaparte；　who　was　then　beginning　to　emerge　from　obscurity；　was

entrusted　with　the　task　of　repression。　　With　such　a　leader　action

was　swift　and　energetic。　　Vigorously　pounded　with　ball　near　the

church　at　St。　Roch；　the　insurgents　fled；　leaving　some　hundreds　of

dead　on　the　spot。



This　action；　which　displayed　a　firmness　to　which　the　Convention

was　little　habituated；　was　only　due　to　the　celerity　of　the

military　operations；　for　while　these　were　being　carried　out　the

insurgents　had　sent　delegates　to　the　Assembly；　which；　as　usual；

showed　itself　quite　ready　to　yield　to　them。



The　repression　of　this　riot　constituted　the　last　important　act　of

the　Convention。　　On　the　26th　of　October；　1795；　it　declared　its

mission　terminated；　and　gave　way　to　the　Directory。



We　have　already　laid　stress　upon　some　of　the　psychological

lessons　furnished　by　the　government　of　the　Convention。　　One　of

the　most　striking　of　these　is　the　impotence　of　violence　to

dominate　men's　minds　in　permanence。



Never　did　any　Government　possess　such　formidable　means　of　action；

yet　in　spite　of　the　permanent　guillotine；　despite　the　delegates

sent　with　the　guillotine　into　the　provinces；　despite　its

Draconian　laws；　the　Convention　had　to　struggle　perpetually

against　riots；　insurrections；　and　conspiracies。　　The　cities；　the

departments；　and　the　faubourgs　of　Paris　were　continually　rising

in　revolt；　although　heads　were　falling　by　the　thousand。



This　Assembly；　which　thought　itself　sovereign；　fought　against　the

invincible　forces　which　were　fixed　in　men's　minds；　and　which

material　constraint　was　powerless　to　overcome。　　Of　these　hidden

motive　forces　it　never　understood　the　power；　and　it　struggled

against　them　in　vain。　　In　the　end　the　invisible　forces　triumphed。







CHAPTER　V



INSTANCES　OF　REVOLUTIONARY　VIOLENCE



1。　　Psychological　Causes　of　Revolutionary　Violence。



We　have　shown　in　the　course　of　the　preceding　chapters　that　the

revolutionary　theories　constituted　a　new　faith。




Humanitarian　and　sentimental；　they　exalted　liberty　and

fraternity。　　But；　as　in　many　religions；　we　can　observe　a　complete

contradiction　between　doctrine　and　action。　　In　practice　no

liberty　was　tolerated；　and　fraternity　was　quickly　replaced　by

frenzied　massacres。



This　opposition　between　principles　and　conduct　results　from　the

intolerance　which　accompanies　all　beliefs。　　A　religion　may　be

steeped　in　humanitarianism　and　forbearance；　but　its　sectaries

will　always　want　to　impose　it　on　others　by　force；　so　that

violence　is　the　inevitable　result。



The　cruelties　of　the　Revolution　were　thus　the　inherent　results　of

the　propagation　of　the　new　dogmas。　　The　Inquisition；　the

religious　wars　of　France；　St。　Bartholomew's　Day；　the　revocation

of　the　Edict　of　Nantes；　the　‘‘Dragonnades；''　the　persecution　of

the　Jansenists；　&c。；　belonged　to　the　same　family　as　the　Terror

and　derived　from　the　same　psychological　sources。



Louis　XIV。　was　not　a　cruel　king；　yet　under　the　impulse　of

his　faith　he　drove　hundreds　of　thousands　of　Protestants　out　of

France；　after　first　shooting　down　a　considerable　number　and

sending　others　to　the　galleys。



The　methods　of　persuasion　adopted　by　all　believers　are　by　no

means　a　consequence　of　their　fear　of　the　dissentient　opposition。　

Protestants　and　Jansenists　were　anything　but　dangerous　under

Louis　XIV。　　Intolerance　arises　above　all　from　the　indignation

experienced　by　a　mind　which　is　convinced　that　it　possesses　the

most　dazzling　verities　against　the　men　who　deny　those　truths；　and

who　are　surely　not　acting　in　good　faith。　　How　can　one　support

error　when　one　has　the　necessary　strength　to　wipe　it　out？



Thus　have　reasoned　the　believers　of　all　ages。　　Thus　reasoned

Louis　XIV。　and　the　men　of　the　Terror。　　These　latter　also　were

convinced　that　they　were　in　possession　of　absolute　truths；　which

they　believed　to　be　obvious；　and　whose　triumph　was　certain　to

regenerate　humanity。　　Could　they　be　more　tolerant　toward　their

adversaries　than　the　Church　and　the　kings　of　France　had　been

toward　heretics？



We　are　forced　to　believe　that　terror　is　a　method　which　all

believers　regard　as　a　necessity；　since　from　the　beginning　of　the

ages　religious　codes　have　always　been　based　upon　terror。　　To

force　men　to　observe　their　prescriptions；　believers　have　sought

to　terrify　them　with　threats　of　an　eternal　hell　of　torments。



The　apostles　of　the　Jacobin　belief　behaved　as　their　fathers　had

done；　and　employed　the　same　methods。　　If　similar　events　occurred

again　we　should　see　identical　actions　repeated。　　If　a　new

beliefSocialism；　for　examplewere　to　triumph　to…morrow；　it

would　be　led　to　employ　methods　of　propaganda　like　those　of

the　Inquisition　and　the　Terror。



But　were　we　to　regard　the　Jacobin　Terror　solely　as　the　result　of

a　religious　movement；　we　should　not　completely　apprehend　it。　

Around　a　triumphant　religious　belief；　as　we　saw　in　the　case　of

the　Reformation；　gather　a　host　of　individual　interests　which　are

dependent　on　that　belief。　　The　Terror　was　directed　by　a　few

fanatical　apostles；　but　beside　this　small　number　of　ardent

proselytes；　whose　narrow　minds　dreamed　of　regenerating　the　world；

were　great　numbers　of　men　who　lived　only　to　enrich　themselves。　

They　rallied　readily　around　the　first　victorious　leader　who

promised　to　enable　them　to　enjoy　the　results　of　their　pillage。



‘‘The　Terrorists　of　the　Revolution；''　writes　Albert　Sorel；

‘‘resorted　to　the　Terror　because　they　wished　to　remain　in　power；

and　were　incapable　of　doing　so　by　other　means。　　They　employed　it

for　their　own　salvation；　and　after　the　event　they　stated　that

their　motive　was　the　salvation　of　the　State。　　Before　it　became　a

system　it　was　a　means　of　government；　and　the　system　was　only

invented　to　justify　the　means。''



We　may　thus　fully　agree　with　the　following　verdict　on　the　Terror；

written　by　Emile　Ollivier　in　his　work　on　the　Revolution：　　‘‘The

Terror　was　above　all　a　Jacquerie；　a　regularised　pillage；　the

vastest　enterprise　of　theft　that　any　association　of　criminals　has

ever　organised。''





2。　　The　Revolutionary　Tribunals。





The　Revolutionary　Tribunals　constituted　the　principal