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the psychology of revolution-µÚ34ÕÂ

С˵£º the psychology of revolution ×ÖÊý£º ÿҳ3500×Ö

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None¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Montagnards¡¡who¡¡had¡¡worked¡¡for¡¡the¡¡downfall¡¡of

Robespierre¡¡had¡¡for¡¡a¡¡moment¡¡dreamed¡¡that¡¡it¡¡would¡¡mark¡¡the¡¡end

of¡¡the¡¡Terror¡£



Tallien£»¡¡Barras£»¡¡Fouche£»¡¡&c¡££»¡¡overthrew¡¡Robespierre¡¡as¡¡he¡¡had

overthrown¡¡Hebert£»¡¡Danton£»¡¡the¡¡Girondists£»¡¡and¡¡many¡¡others¡£¡¡

But¡¡when¡¡the¡¡acclamations¡¡of¡¡the¡¡crowd¡¡told¡¡them¡¡that¡¡the¡¡death

of¡¡Robespierre¡¡was¡¡regarded¡¡as¡¡having¡¡put¡¡an¡¡end¡¡to¡¡the¡¡Terror

they¡¡acted¡¡as¡¡though¡¡such¡¡had¡¡been¡¡their¡¡intention¡£¡¡¡¡They¡¡were

the¡¡more¡¡obliged¡¡to¡¡do¡¡so¡¡in¡¡that¡¡the¡¡Plainthat¡¡is£»¡¡the¡¡great

majority¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Assemblywhich¡¡had¡¡allowed¡¡itself¡¡to¡¡be

decimated¡¡by¡¡Robespierre£»¡¡now¡¡rebelled¡¡furiously¡¡against¡¡the

system¡¡it¡¡had¡¡so¡¡long¡¡acclaimed¡¡even¡¡while¡¡it¡¡abhorred¡¡it¡£¡¡

Nothing¡¡is¡¡more¡¡terrible¡¡than¡¡a¡¡body¡¡of¡¡men¡¡who¡¡have¡¡been¡¡afraid

and¡¡are¡¡afraid¡¡no¡¡longer¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Plain¡¡revenged¡¡itself¡¡for¡¡being

terrorised¡¡by¡¡the¡¡Mountain£»¡¡and¡¡terrorised¡¡that¡¡body¡¡in¡¡turn¡£



The¡¡servility¡¡of¡¡the¡¡colleagues¡¡of¡¡Robespierre¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Convention

was¡¡by¡¡no¡¡means¡¡based¡¡upon¡¡any¡¡feeling¡¡of¡¡sympathy¡¡for¡¡him¡£¡¡¡¡The

dictator¡¡filled¡¡them¡¡with¡¡an¡¡unspeakable¡¡alarm£»¡¡but¡¡beneath¡¡the

marks¡¡of¡¡admiration¡¡and¡¡enthusiasm¡¡which¡¡they¡¡lavished¡¡on¡¡him¡¡out

of¡¡fear¡¡was¡¡concealed¡¡an¡¡intense¡¡hatred¡£¡¡¡¡We¡¡can¡¡gather¡¡as¡¡much

by¡¡reading¡¡the¡¡reports¡¡of¡¡various¡¡deputies¡¡inserted¡¡in¡¡the

Moniteur¡¡of¡¡August¡¡11£»¡¡15£»¡¡and¡¡29£»¡¡1794£»¡¡and¡¡notably¡¡that¡¡on

¡®¡®the¡¡conspiracy¡¡of¡¡the¡¡triumvirs£»¡¡Robespierre£»¡¡Couthon£»¡¡and

Saint¡­Just¡£''¡¡¡¡Never¡¡did¡¡slaves¡¡heap¡¡such¡¡invectives¡¡on¡¡a¡¡fallen

master¡£



We¡¡learn¡¡that¡¡¡®¡®these¡¡monsters¡¡had¡¡for¡¡some¡¡time¡¡been¡¡renewing

the¡¡most¡¡horrible¡¡prescriptions¡¡of¡¡Marius¡¡and¡¡Sulla¡£''¡¡

Robespierre¡¡is¡¡represented¡¡as¡¡a¡¡most¡¡frightful¡¡scoundrel£»¡¡we¡¡are

assured¡¡that¡¡¡®¡®like¡¡Caligula£»¡¡he¡¡would¡¡soon¡¡have¡¡asked¡¡the¡¡French

people¡¡to¡¡worship¡¡his¡¡horse¡¡¡£¡¡¡£¡¡¡£¡¡¡¡He¡¡sought¡¡security¡¡in

the¡¡execution¡¡of¡¡all¡¡who¡¡aroused¡¡his¡¡slightest¡¡suspicion¡£''



These¡¡reports¡¡forget¡¡to¡¡add¡¡that¡¡the¡¡power¡¡of¡¡Robespierre

obtained¡¡no¡¡support£»¡¡as¡¡did¡¡that¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Marius¡¡and¡¡Sulla¡¡to¡¡whom

they¡¡allude£»¡¡from¡¡a¡¡powerful¡¡army£»¡¡but¡¡merely¡¡from¡¡the¡¡repeated

adhesion¡¡of¡¡the¡¡members¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Convention¡£¡¡¡¡Without¡¡their¡¡

extreme¡¡timidity¡¡the¡¡power¡¡of¡¡the¡¡dictator¡¡could¡¡not¡¡have¡¡lasted

a¡¡single¡¡day¡£



Robespierre¡¡was¡¡one¡¡of¡¡the¡¡most¡¡odious¡¡tyrants¡¡of¡¡history£»¡¡but¡¡he

is¡¡distinguished¡¡from¡¡all¡¡others¡¡in¡¡that¡¡he¡¡made¡¡himself¡¡a¡¡tyrant

without¡¡soldiers¡£



We¡¡may¡¡sum¡¡up¡¡his¡¡doctrines¡¡by¡¡saying¡¡that¡¡he¡¡was¡¡the¡¡most

perfect¡¡incarnation£»¡¡save¡¡perhaps¡¡Saint¡­Just£»¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Jacobin

faith£»¡¡in¡¡all¡¡its¡¡narrow¡¡logic£»¡¡its¡¡intense¡¡mysticism£»¡¡and¡¡its

inflexible¡¡rigidity¡£¡¡¡¡He¡¡has¡¡admirers¡¡even¡¡to¡­day¡£¡¡¡¡M¡£¡¡Hamel

describes¡¡him¡¡as¡¡¡®¡®the¡¡martyr¡¡of¡¡Thermidor¡£''¡¡¡¡There¡¡has¡¡been

some¡¡talk¡¡of¡¡erecting¡¡a¡¡monument¡¡to¡¡him¡£¡¡¡¡I¡¡would¡¡willingly

subscribe¡¡to¡¡such¡¡a¡¡purpose£»¡¡feeling¡¡that¡¡it¡¡is¡¡useful¡¡to

preserve¡¡proofs¡¡of¡¡the¡¡blindness¡¡of¡¡the¡¡crowd£»¡¡and¡¡of¡¡the

extraordinary¡¡docility¡¡of¡¡which¡¡an¡¡assembly¡¡is¡¡capable¡¡when¡¡the

leader¡¡knows¡¡how¡¡to¡¡handle¡¡it¡£¡¡¡¡His¡¡statue¡¡would¡¡recall¡¡the

passionate¡¡cries¡¡of¡¡admiration¡¡and¡¡enthusiasm¡¡with¡¡which¡¡the

Convention¡¡acclaimed¡¡the¡¡most¡¡threatening¡¡measures¡¡of¡¡the

dictator£»¡¡on¡¡the¡¡very¡¡eve¡¡of¡¡the¡¡day¡¡when¡¡it¡¡was¡¡about¡¡to¡¡cast

him¡¡down¡£





4¡£¡¡¡¡Fouquier¡­Tinville£»¡¡Marat£»¡¡Billaud¡­Varenne£»¡¡&c¡£





I¡¡shall¡¡devote¡¡a¡¡paragraph¡¡to¡¡certain¡¡revolutionists¡¡who¡¡were

famous¡¡for¡¡the¡¡development¡¡of¡¡their¡¡most¡¡sanguinary¡¡instincts¡£¡¡

Their¡¡ferocity¡¡was¡¡complicated¡¡by¡¡other¡¡sentiments£»¡¡by

fear¡¡and¡¡hatred£»¡¡which¡¡could¡¡but¡¡fortify¡¡it¡£



Fouquier¡­Tinville£»¡¡the¡¡public¡¡prosecutor¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Revolutionary

Tribunal£»¡¡was¡¡one¡¡of¡¡those¡¡who¡¡have¡¡left¡¡the¡¡most¡¡sinister

memories¡£¡¡¡¡This¡¡magistrate£»¡¡formerly¡¡reputed¡¡for¡¡his¡¡kindness£»

and¡¡who¡¡became¡¡the¡¡bloodthirsty¡¡creature¡¡whose¡¡memory¡¡evokes¡¡such

repulsion£»¡¡has¡¡already¡¡served¡¡me¡¡as¡¡an¡¡example¡¡in¡¡other¡¡works£»

when¡¡I¡¡have¡¡wished¡¡to¡¡show¡¡the¡¡transformation¡¡of¡¡certain¡¡natures

in¡¡time¡¡of¡¡revolution¡£



Needy¡¡in¡¡the¡¡extreme¡¡at¡¡the¡¡moment¡¡of¡¡the¡¡fall¡¡of¡¡the¡¡monarchy£»

he¡¡had¡¡everything¡¡to¡¡hope¡¡from¡¡a¡¡social¡¡upheaval¡¡and¡¡nothing¡¡to

lose¡£¡¡¡¡He¡¡was¡¡one¡¡of¡¡those¡¡men¡¡whom¡¡a¡¡period¡¡of¡¡disorder¡¡will

always¡¡find¡¡ready¡¡to¡¡sustain¡¡it¡£



The¡¡Convention¡¡abandoned¡¡its¡¡powers¡¡to¡¡him¡£¡¡¡¡He¡¡had¡¡to¡¡pronounce

upon¡¡the¡¡fate¡¡of¡¡nearly¡¡two¡¡thousand¡¡accused£»¡¡among¡¡whom¡¡were

Marie¡­Antoinette£»¡¡the¡¡Girondists£»¡¡Danton£»¡¡Hebert£»¡¡&c¡£¡¡¡¡He¡¡had

all¡¡the¡¡suspects¡¡brought¡¡before¡¡him¡¡executed£»¡¡and¡¡did¡¡not¡¡scruple

to¡¡betray¡¡his¡¡former¡¡protectors¡£¡¡¡¡As¡¡soon¡¡as¡¡one¡¡of¡¡them¡¡fell

into¡¡his¡¡powerCamille¡¡Desmoulins£»¡¡Danton£»¡¡or¡¡anotherhe¡¡would

plead¡¡against¡¡him¡£



Fouquier¡­Tinville¡¡had¡¡a¡¡very¡¡inferior¡¡mind£»¡¡which¡¡the¡¡Revolution

brought¡¡to¡¡the¡¡top¡£¡¡¡¡Under¡¡normal¡¡conditions£»¡¡hedged¡¡about¡¡by

professional¡¡rules£»¡¡his¡¡destiny¡¡would¡¡have¡¡been¡¡that¡¡of¡¡a

peaceable¡¡and¡¡obscure¡¡magistrate¡£¡¡¡¡This¡¡was¡¡precisely¡¡the¡¡lot¡¡of

his¡¡deputy£»¡¡or¡¡substitute£»¡¡at¡¡the¡¡Tribunal£»¡¡Gilbert¡­Liendon¡£¡¡

¡®¡®He¡¡should£»''¡¡writes¡¡M¡£¡¡Durel£»¡¡¡®¡®have¡¡inspired¡¡the¡¡same¡¡horror

as¡¡his¡¡colleague£»¡¡yet¡¡he¡¡completed¡¡his¡¡career¡¡in¡¡the¡¡upper¡¡ranks

of¡¡the¡¡Imperial¡¡magistracy¡£''



One¡¡of¡¡the¡¡great¡¡benefits¡¡of¡¡an¡¡organised¡¡society¡¡is¡¡that¡¡it¡¡does

restrain¡¡these¡¡dangerous¡¡characters£»¡¡whom¡¡nothing¡¡but¡¡social

restraints¡¡can¡¡hold¡£



Fouquier¡­Tinville¡¡died¡¡without¡¡understanding¡¡why¡¡he¡¡was

condemned£»¡¡and¡¡from¡¡the¡¡revolutionary¡¡point¡¡of¡¡view¡¡his

condemnation¡¡was¡¡not¡¡justifiable¡£¡¡¡¡Had¡¡he¡¡not¡¡merely¡¡zealously

executed¡¡the¡¡orders¡¡of¡¡his¡¡superiors£¿¡¡¡¡It¡¡is¡¡impossible¡¡to¡¡class

him¡¡with¡¡the¡¡representatives¡¡who¡¡were¡¡sent¡¡into¡¡the¡¡provinces£»

who¡¡could¡¡not¡¡be¡¡supervised¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡delegates¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Convention

examined¡¡all¡¡his¡¡sentences¡¡and¡¡approved¡¡of¡¡them¡¡up¡¡to¡¡the¡¡last¡£¡¡

If¡¡his¡¡cruelty¡¡and¡¡his¡¡summary¡¡fashion¡¡of¡¡trying¡¡the¡¡prisoners

before¡¡him¡¡had¡¡not¡¡been¡¡encouraged¡¡by¡¡his¡¡chiefs£»¡¡he¡¡could¡¡not

have¡¡remained¡¡in¡¡power¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡condemning¡¡Fouquier¡­Tinville£»¡¡the

Convention¡¡condemned¡¡its¡¡own¡¡frightful¡¡system¡¡of¡¡government¡£¡¡¡¡It

understood¡¡this¡¡fact£»¡¡and¡¡sent¡¡to¡¡the¡¡scaffold¡¡a¡¡number¡¡of

Terrorists¡¡whom¡¡Fouquier¡­Tinville¡¡had¡¡merely¡¡served¡¡as¡¡a¡¡faithful

agent¡£



Beside¡¡Fouquier¡­Tinville¡¡we¡¡may¡¡set¡¡Dumas£»¡¡who¡¡presided¡¡over¡¡the

Revolutionary¡¡Tribunal£»¡¡and¡¡who¡¡also¡¡displayed¡¡an¡¡excessive

cruelty£»¡¡which¡¡was¡¡whetted¡¡by¡¡an¡¡intense¡¡fear¡£¡¡¡¡He¡¡never¡¡went¡¡out

without¡¡two¡¡loaded¡¡pistols£»¡¡barricaded¡¡himself¡¡in¡¡his¡¡house£»¡¡and

only¡¡spoke¡¡to¡¡visitors¡¡through¡¡a¡¡wicket¡£¡¡¡¡His¡¡distrust¡¡of

everybody£»¡¡including¡¡his¡¡own¡¡wife£»¡¡was¡¡absolute¡£¡¡¡¡He¡¡even

imprisoned¡¡the¡¡latter£»¡¡and¡¡was¡¡about¡¡to¡¡have¡¡her¡¡executed¡¡when

Thermidor¡¡arrived¡£



Among¡¡the¡¡men¡¡whom¡¡the¡¡Convention¡¡brought¡¡to¡¡light£»¡¡Billaud¡­

Varenne¡¡was¡¡one¡¡of¡¡the¡¡wildest¡¡and£»¡¡most¡¡brutal¡£¡¡¡¡He¡¡may¡¡be

regarded¡¡as¡¡a¡¡perfect¡¡type¡¡of¡¡bestial¡¡ferocity¡£



¡®¡®In¡¡these¡¡hours¡¡of¡¡fruitful¡¡anger¡¡and¡¡heroic¡¡anguish¡¡he

remained¡¡calm£»¡¡acquitting¡¡himself¡¡methodically¡¡of¡¡his¡¡taskand

it¡¡was¡¡a¡¡frightful¡¡task£º¡¡he¡¡appeared¡¡officially¡¡at¡¡the¡¡massacres

of¡¡the¡¡Abbaye£»¡¡congratulated¡¡the¡¡assassins£»¡¡and¡¡promised¡¡them

money£»¡¡upon¡¡which¡¡he¡¡went¡¡home¡¡as¡¡if¡¡he¡¡had¡¡merely¡¡been¡¡taking¡¡a

walk¡£¡¡¡¡We¡¡see¡¡him¡¡as¡¡president¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Jacobin¡¡Club£»¡¡president¡¡of

the¡¡Convention£»¡¡and¡¡member¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Committee¡¡of¡¡Public¡¡Safety£»¡¡he

drags¡¡the¡¡Girondists¡¡to¡¡the¡¡scaffold£º¡¡he¡¡drags¡¡the¡¡queen¡¡thither£»

and¡¡his¡¡former¡¡patron£»¡¡Danton£»¡¡said¡¡of¡¡him£»¡¡¡®Billaud¡¡has¡¡a¡¡dagger

under¡¡his¡¡tongue¡£'¡¡¡¡He¡¡approves¡¡of¡¡the¡¡cannonades¡¡at¡¡Lyons£»¡¡the

drownings¡¡at¡¡Nantes£»¡¡the¡¡massacres¡¡at¡¡Arras£»¡¡he¡¡organises¡¡the

pitiless¡¡commission¡¡of¡¡Orange£»¡¡he¡¡is¡¡concerned¡¡in¡¡the¡¡laws¡¡of

Prairial£»¡¡he¡¡eggs¡¡on¡¡Fouquier¡­Tinville£»¡¡on¡¡all¡¡decrees¡¡of¡¡death

is¡¡his¡¡name£»¡¡often¡¡the¡¡first£»¡¡he¡¡signs¡¡before¡¡his¡¡colleagues£»¡¡he

is¡¡without¡¡pity£»¡¡without¡¡emotion£»¡¡without¡¡enthusiasm£»¡¡when¡¡others

are¡¡frightened£»¡¡hesitate£»¡¡and¡¡draw¡¡back£»¡¡he¡¡goes¡¡his¡¡way£»

speaking¡¡in¡¡turgid¡¡sentences£»¡¡¡®shaking¡¡his¡¡lion's¡¡mane'for¡¡to

make¡¡his¡¡cold¡¡and¡¡impassive¡¡face¡¡more¡¡in¡¡harmony¡¡with¡¡the

exuberance¡¡that¡¡surrounds¡¡him¡¡he¡¡now¡¡decks¡¡himself¡¡in¡¡a¡¡yellow

wig¡¡which¡¡would¡¡make¡¡one¡¡laugh¡¡were¡¡it¡¡on¡¡any¡¡but¡¡the¡¡sinister

head¡¡of¡¡Billaud¡­Varenne¡£¡¡¡¡When¡¡Robespierre£»¡¡Saint¡­Just£»¡¡and

Couthon¡¡are¡¡threatened¡¡in¡¡turn£»¡¡he¡¡deserts¡¡them¡¡and¡¡goes¡¡over¡¡to

the¡¡enemy£»¡¡and¡¡pushes¡¡them¡¡under¡¡the¡¡knife¡£¡¡¡£¡¡¡£¡¡¡£¡¡¡¡Why£¿¡¡¡¡What¡¡is

his¡¡aim£¿¡¡¡¡No¡¡one¡¡knows£»¡¡he¡¡is¡¡not¡¡in¡¡any¡¡way¡¡ambitious£»¡¡he

desires¡¡neither¡¡power¡¡nor¡¡money¡£''



I¡¡do¡¡not¡¡think¡¡it¡¡would¡¡be¡¡difficult¡¡to¡¡answer¡¡why¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡thirst

for¡¡blood£»¡¡of¡¡which¡¡we¡¡have¡¡already¡¡spoken£»¡¡and¡¡which¡¡is¡¡very

common¡¡among¡¡certain¡¡criminals£»¡¡perfectly¡¡explains¡¡the

conduct¡¡of¡¡Billaud¡­Varennes¡£¡¡¡¡Bandits¡¡of¡¡this¡¡type¡¡kill¡¡for¡¡the

sake¡¡of¡¡killing£»¡¡as¡¡sportsmen¡¡shoot¡¡gamefor¡¡the¡¡very¡¡pleasure

of¡¡exercising¡¡their¡¡taste¡¡for¡¡destruction¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡ordinary¡¡times¡¡men

endowed¡¡with¡¡these¡¡homicidal¡¡tendencies¡¡refrain£»¡¡generally¡¡from

fear¡¡of¡¡the¡¡policeman¡¡and¡¡the¡¡scaffold¡£¡¡¡¡When¡¡they¡¡are¡¡able¡¡to

give¡¡them¡¡free¡¡vent¡¡nothing¡¡can¡¡stop¡¡them¡£¡¡¡¡Such¡¡was¡¡the¡¡case

with¡¡Billaud¡­Varenne¡¡and¡¡many¡¡others¡£



The¡¡psychology¡¡of¡¡Marat¡¡is¡¡rather¡¡more¡¡complicated£»¡¡not¡¡only

because¡¡his¡¡craving¡¡for¡¡murder¡¡was¡¡combined¡¡with¡¡other¡¡elements

wounded¡¡self¡­love£»¡¡ambition£»¡¡mystic¡¡beliefs£»¡¡&c¡£but¡¡also

because¡¡we¡¡must¡¡regard¡¡him¡¡as¡¡a¡¡semi¡­lunatic£»¡¡affected¡¡by

megalomania£»¡¡and¡¡haunted¡¡by¡¡fixed¡¡ideas¡£



Before¡¡the¡¡Revolution¡¡he¡¡had¡¡advanced¡¡great¡¡scientific

pretensions£»¡¡but¡¡no¡¡one¡¡attached¡¡much¡¡importance¡¡to¡¡his

maunderings¡£¡¡¡¡Dreaming¡¡of¡¡place¡¡and¡¡honour£»¡¡he¡¡had¡¡only¡¡obtained

a¡¡very¡¡subordinate¡¡situation¡¡in¡¡the¡¡household¡¡of¡¡a¡¡great¡¡noble¡£¡¡

The¡¡Revolution¡¡opened¡¡up¡¡an¡¡unhoped¡­for¡¡future¡£¡¡¡¡Swollen¡¡with

hatred¡¡of¡¡the¡¡old¡¡social¡¡system¡¡which¡¡had¡¡not¡¡recognised¡¡his

merits£»¡¡he¡¡put¡¡himself¡¡at¡¡the¡¡head¡¡of¡¡the¡¡most¡¡violent¡¡section¡¡of

the¡¡people¡£¡¡¡¡Having¡¡publicly¡¡glorified¡¡the¡¡massacres¡¡of

September£»¡¡he¡¡founded¡¡a¡¡journal¡¡which¡¡denounced¡¡everybody¡¡and

clamoured¡¡incessantly¡¡for¡¡executions¡£



Speaking¡¡continually¡¡of¡¡the¡¡interests¡¡of¡¡the¡¡people£»¡¡Marat¡¡became

their¡¡idol¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡majority¡¡of¡¡his¡¡colleagues¡¡heartily¡¡despised

him¡£¡¡¡¡Had¡¡he¡¡escaped¡¡the¡¡knife¡¡of¡¡Charlotte¡¡Corday£»¡¡he¡¡certainly

would¡¡not¡¡have¡¡escaped¡¡that¡¡of¡¡the¡¡guillotine¡£





5¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Destiny¡¡of¡¡those¡¡Members¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Convention¡¡who¡¡survived

the¡¡Revolution¡£





Beside¡¡the¡¡members¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Convention¡¡whose¡¡psychology¡¡presents

particular¡¡characteristics¡¡there¡¡were¡¡othersBarras£»¡¡Fouche£»

Tallien£»¡¡Merlin¡¡de¡¡Thionville£»¡¡&c¡£completely¡¡devoid¡¡of

principles¡¡or¡¡belief£»¡¡who¡¡only¡¡sought¡¡to¡¡enrich¡¡themselves¡£



They¡¡sought¡¡to¡¡build¡¡up¡¡enormous¡¡fortunes¡¡out¡¡of¡¡the¡¡public

misery¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡ordinary¡¡times¡¡they¡¡would¡¡have¡¡been¡¡qualified¡¡as

simple¡¡scoundrels£»¡¡but¡¡in¡¡periods¡¡of¡¡revolution¡¡all¡¡standards

of¡¡vice¡¡and¡¡virtue¡¡seem¡¡to¡¡disappear¡£



Although¡¡a¡¡few¡¡Jacobins¡¡remained¡¡fanatics£»¡¡the¡¡majority¡¡renounced

their¡¡convictions¡¡as¡¡soon¡¡as¡¡they¡¡had¡¡obtained¡¡riches£»¡¡and¡¡became

the¡¡faithful¡¡courtiers¡¡of¡¡Napoleon¡£¡¡¡¡Cambaceres£»¡¡who£»¡¡on

addressing¡¡Louis¡¡XVI¡£¡¡in¡¡prison£»¡¡called¡¡him¡¡Louis¡¡Capet£»¡¡under

the¡¡Empire¡¡required¡¡his¡¡friends¡¡to¡¡call¡¡him¡¡¡®¡®Highness''¡¡in

public¡¡and¡¡¡®¡®Monseigneur''¡¡in¡¡private£»¡¡thus¡¡displaying¡¡the

envious¡¡feeling¡¡which¡¡accompanied¡¡the¡¡craving¡¡for¡¡equality¡¡in

many¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Jacobin

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