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the psychology of revolution-µÚ36ÕÂ

С˵£º the psychology of revolution ×ÖÊý£º ÿҳ3500×Ö

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Observing¡¡everywhere¡¡a¡¡Catholic¡¡renascence£»¡¡and¡¡imagining¡¡that

the¡¡clergy¡¡were¡¡conspiring¡¡against¡¡them£»¡¡the¡¡Directors¡¡deported

or¡¡sent¡¡to¡¡the¡¡galleys¡¡in¡¡one¡¡year¡¡1£»448¡¡priests£»¡¡to¡¡say¡¡nothing

of¡¡a¡¡large¡¡number¡¡who¡¡were¡¡summarily¡¡executed¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Terror¡¡was¡¡in

reality¡¡completely¡¡re¡­established¡£



The¡¡autocratic¡¡despotism¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Directory¡¡was¡¡exercised¡¡in¡¡all

the¡¡branches¡¡of¡¡the¡¡administration£»¡¡notably¡¡the¡¡finances¡£¡¡¡¡Thus£»

having¡¡need¡¡of¡¡six¡¡hundred¡¡million¡¡francs£»¡¡it¡¡forced¡¡the

deputies£»¡¡always¡¡docile£»¡¡to¡¡vote¡¡a¡¡progressive¡¡impost£»¡¡which

yielded£»¡¡however£»¡¡only¡¡twelve¡¡millions¡£¡¡¡¡Being¡¡presently¡¡in¡¡the

same¡¡condition£»¡¡it¡¡decreed¡¡a¡¡forced¡¡loan¡¡of¡¡a¡¡hundred¡¡millions£»

which¡¡resulted¡¡in¡¡the¡¡closing¡¡of¡¡workshops£»¡¡the¡¡stoppage¡¡of

business£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡dismissal¡¡of¡¡domestics¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡was¡¡only¡¡at¡¡the

price¡¡of¡¡absolute¡¡ruin¡¡that¡¡forty¡¡millions¡¡could¡¡be¡¡obtained¡£



To¡¡assure¡¡itself¡¡of¡¡domination¡¡in¡¡the¡¡provinces¡¡the¡¡Directory

caused¡¡a¡¡so¡­called¡¡law¡¡of¡¡hostages¡¡to¡¡be¡¡passed£»¡¡according¡¡to

which¡¡a¡¡list¡¡of¡¡hostages£»¡¡responsible¡¡for¡¡all¡¡offences£»¡¡was¡¡drawn

up¡¡in¡¡each¡¡commune¡£



It¡¡is¡¡easy¡¡to¡¡understand¡¡what¡¡hatred¡¡such¡¡a¡¡system¡¡provoked¡£¡¡¡¡At

the¡¡end¡¡of¡¡1799¡¡fourteen¡¡departments¡¡were¡¡in¡¡revolt¡¡and¡¡forty¡­six

were¡¡ready¡¡to¡¡rise¡£¡¡¡¡If¡¡the¡¡Directory¡¡had¡¡lasted¡¡the¡¡dissolution

of¡¡society¡¡would¡¡have¡¡been¡¡complete¡£



For¡¡that¡¡matter£»¡¡this¡¡dissolution¡¡was¡¡far¡¡advanced¡£¡¡¡¡Finances£»

administration£»¡¡everything¡¡was¡¡crumbling¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡receipts¡¡of¡¡the

Treasury£»¡¡consisting¡¡of¡¡depreciated¡¡assignats¡¡fallen¡¡to¡¡a

hundredth¡¡part¡¡of¡¡their¡¡original¡¡value£»¡¡were¡¡negligible¡£¡¡¡¡Holders

of¡¡Government¡¡stock¡¡and¡¡officers¡¡could¡¡no¡¡longer¡¡obtain¡¡payment¡£



France¡¡at¡¡this¡¡time¡¡gave¡¡travellers¡¡the¡¡impression¡¡of¡¡a¡¡country

ravaged¡¡by¡¡war¡¡and¡¡abandoned¡¡by¡¡its¡¡inhabitants¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡broken

bridges¡¡and¡¡dykes¡¡and¡¡ruined¡¡buildings¡¡made¡¡all¡¡traffic

impossible¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡roads£»¡¡long¡¡deserted£»¡¡were¡¡infested¡¡by¡¡brigands¡£



Certain¡¡departments¡¡could¡¡only¡¡be¡¡crossed¡¡at¡¡the¡¡price¡¡of¡¡buying

a¡¡safe¡­conduct¡¡from¡¡the¡¡leaders¡¡of¡¡these¡¡bands¡£¡¡¡¡Industry

and¡¡commerce¡¡were¡¡annihilated¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡Lyons¡¡13£»000¡¡workshops¡¡and

mills¡¡out¡¡of¡¡15£»000¡¡had¡¡been¡¡forced¡¡to¡¡close¡£¡¡¡¡Lille£»¡¡Havre£»

Bordeaux£»¡¡Lyons£»¡¡Marseilles£»¡¡&c¡££»¡¡were¡¡like¡¡dead¡¡cities¡£¡¡¡¡Poverty

and¡¡famine¡¡were¡¡general¡£



The¡¡moral¡¡disorganisation¡¡was¡¡no¡¡less¡¡terrible¡£¡¡¡¡Luxury¡¡and¡¡the

craving¡¡for¡¡pleasure£»¡¡costly¡¡dinners£»¡¡jewels£»¡¡and¡¡extravagant

households¡¡were¡¡the¡¡appanage¡¡of¡¡a¡¡new¡¡society¡¡composed¡¡entirely

of¡¡stock¡­jobbers£»¡¡army¡¡contractors£»¡¡and¡¡shady¡¡financiers¡¡enriched

by¡¡pillage¡£¡¡¡¡They¡¡gave¡¡Paris¡¡that¡¡superficial¡¡aspect¡¡of¡¡luxury

and¡¡gaiety¡¡which¡¡has¡¡deluded¡¡so¡¡many¡¡historians¡¡of¡¡this¡¡period£»

because¡¡the¡¡insolent¡¡prodigality¡¡displayed¡¡covered¡¡the¡¡general

misery¡£



The¡¡chronicles¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Directory¡¡as¡¡told¡¡in¡¡books¡¡help¡¡to¡¡show¡¡us

of¡¡what¡¡lies¡¡the¡¡web¡¡of¡¡history¡¡is¡¡woven¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡theatre¡¡has¡¡lately

got¡¡hold¡¡of¡¡this¡¡period£»¡¡of¡¡which¡¡the¡¡fashions¡¡are¡¡still

imitated¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡has¡¡left¡¡the¡¡memory¡¡of¡¡a¡¡joyous¡¡period¡¡of¡¡re¡­birth

after¡¡the¡¡gloomy¡¡drama¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Terror¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡reality¡¡the¡¡drama¡¡of

the¡¡Directory¡¡was¡¡hardly¡¡an¡¡improvement¡¡on¡¡the¡¡Terror¡¡and¡¡was

quite¡¡as¡¡sanguinary¡£¡¡¡¡Finally£»¡¡it¡¡inspired¡¡such¡¡loathing¡¡that¡¡the

Directors£»¡¡feeling¡¡that¡¡it¡¡could¡¡not¡¡last£»¡¡sought¡¡themselves¡¡for

the¡¡dictator¡¡capable¡¡of¡¡replacing¡¡it¡¡and¡¡also¡¡of¡¡protecting¡¡them¡£





3¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Advent¡¡of¡¡Bonaparte¡£





We¡¡have¡¡seen¡¡that¡¡at¡¡the¡¡end¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Directory¡¡the¡¡anarchy¡¡and

disorganisation¡¡were¡¡such¡¡that¡¡every¡¡one¡¡was¡¡desperately¡¡calling

for¡¡the¡¡man¡¡of¡¡energy¡¡capable¡¡of¡¡re¡­establishing¡¡order¡£¡¡¡¡As¡¡early

as¡¡1795¡¡a¡¡number¡¡of¡¡deputies¡¡had¡¡thought¡¡for¡¡a¡¡moment¡¡of¡¡re¡­

establishing¡¡royalty¡£¡¡¡¡Louis¡¡XVIII¡££»¡¡having¡¡been¡¡tactless

enough¡¡to¡¡declare¡¡that¡¡he¡¡would¡¡restore¡¡the¡¡ancien¡¡regime¡¡in

its¡¡entirety£»¡¡return¡¡all¡¡property¡¡to¡¡its¡¡original¡¡owners£»¡¡and

punish¡¡the¡¡men¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Revolution£»¡¡was¡¡immediately¡¡thrown¡¡over¡£¡¡

The¡¡senseless¡¡expedition¡¡of¡¡Quiberon¡¡finally¡¡alienated¡¡the

supporters¡¡of¡¡the¡¡future¡¡sovereign¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡royalists¡¡gave¡¡a¡¡proof

during¡¡the¡¡whole¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Revolution¡¡of¡¡an¡¡incapacity¡¡and¡¡a

narrowness¡¡of¡¡mind¡¡which¡¡justified¡¡most¡¡of¡¡the¡¡measures¡¡taken

against¡¡them¡£



The¡¡monarchy¡¡being¡¡impossible£»¡¡it¡¡was¡¡necessary¡¡to¡¡find¡¡a

general¡£¡¡¡¡Only¡¡one¡¡existed¡¡whose¡¡name¡¡carried¡¡weightBonaparte¡£¡¡

The¡¡campaign¡¡in¡¡Italy¡¡had¡¡just¡¡made¡¡him¡¡famous¡£¡¡¡¡Having¡¡crossed

the¡¡Alps£»¡¡he¡¡had¡¡marched¡¡from¡¡victory¡¡to¡¡victory£»¡¡penetrated¡¡to

Milan¡¡and¡¡Venice£»¡¡and¡¡everywhere¡¡obtained¡¡important¡¡war

contributions¡£¡¡¡¡He¡¡then¡¡made¡¡towards¡¡Vienna£»¡¡and¡¡was¡¡only¡¡twenty¡­

five¡¡leagues¡¡from¡¡its¡¡gates¡¡when¡¡the¡¡Emperor¡¡of¡¡Austria¡¡decided

to¡¡sue¡¡for¡¡peace¡£



But¡¡great¡¡as¡¡was¡¡his¡¡renown£»¡¡the¡¡young¡¡general¡¡did¡¡not¡¡consider

it¡¡sufficient¡£¡¡¡¡To¡¡increase¡¡it¡¡he¡¡persuaded¡¡the¡¡Directory¡¡that

the¡¡power¡¡of¡¡England¡¡could¡¡be¡¡shaken¡¡by¡¡an¡¡invasion¡¡of¡¡Egypt£»¡¡and

in¡¡May£»¡¡1798£»¡¡he¡¡embarked¡¡at¡¡Toulon¡£



This¡¡need¡¡of¡¡increasing¡¡his¡¡prestige¡¡arose¡¡from¡¡a¡¡very¡¡sound

psychological¡¡conception¡¡which¡¡he¡¡clearly¡¡expounded¡¡at¡¡St¡£

Helena£º



¡®¡®The¡¡most¡¡influential¡¡and¡¡enlightened¡¡generals¡¡had¡¡long¡¡been

pressing¡¡the¡¡general¡¡of¡¡Italy¡¡to¡¡take¡¡steps¡¡to¡¡place¡¡himself¡¡at

the¡¡head¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Republic¡£¡¡¡¡He¡¡refused£»¡¡he¡¡was¡¡not¡¡yet¡¡strong

enough¡¡to¡¡walk¡¡quite¡¡alone¡£¡¡¡¡He¡¡had¡¡ideas¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡art¡¡of

governing¡¡and¡¡upon¡¡what¡¡was¡¡necessary¡¡to¡¡a¡¡great¡¡nation

which¡¡were¡¡so¡¡different¡¡from¡¡those¡¡of¡¡the¡¡men¡¡of¡¡the

Revolution¡¡and¡¡the¡¡assemblies¡¡that£»¡¡not¡¡being¡¡able¡¡to¡¡act¡¡alone£»

he¡¡feared¡¡to¡¡compromise¡¡his¡¡character¡£¡¡¡¡He¡¡determined¡¡to¡¡set¡¡out

for¡¡Egypt£»¡¡but¡¡resolved¡¡to¡¡reappear¡¡if¡¡circumstances¡¡should¡¡arise

to¡¡render¡¡his¡¡presence¡¡useful¡¡or¡¡necessary¡£''



Bonaparte¡¡did¡¡not¡¡stay¡¡long¡¡in¡¡Egypt¡£¡¡¡¡Recalled¡¡by¡¡his¡¡friends£»

he¡¡landed¡¡at¡¡Frejus£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡announcement¡¡of¡¡his¡¡return¡¡provoked

universal¡¡enthusiasm¡£¡¡¡¡There¡¡were¡¡illuminations¡¡everywhere¡£¡¡

France¡¡collaborated¡¡in¡¡advance¡¡in¡¡the¡¡coup¡¡d'etat¡¡prepared

by¡¡two¡¡Directors¡¡and¡¡the¡¡principal¡¡ministers¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡plot¡¡was

organised¡¡in¡¡three¡¡weeks¡£¡¡¡¡Its¡¡execution¡¡on¡¡the¡¡18th¡¡of¡¡Brumaire

was¡¡accomplished¡¡with¡¡the¡¡greatest¡¡ease¡£



All¡¡parties¡¡experienced¡¡the¡¡greatest¡¡delight¡¡at¡¡being¡¡rid¡¡of¡¡the

sinister¡¡gangs¡¡who¡¡had¡¡so¡¡long¡¡oppressed¡¡and¡¡exploited¡¡the

country¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡French¡¡were¡¡doubtless¡¡about¡¡to¡¡enter¡¡upon¡¡a

despotic¡¡system¡¡of¡¡government£»¡¡but¡¡it¡¡could¡¡not¡¡be¡¡so¡¡intolerable

as¡¡that¡¡which¡¡had¡¡been¡¡endured¡¡for¡¡so¡¡many¡¡years¡£



The¡¡history¡¡of¡¡the¡¡coup¡¡d'etat¡¡of¡¡Brumaire¡¡justifies¡¡all

that¡¡we¡¡have¡¡already¡¡said¡¡of¡¡the¡¡impossibility¡¡of¡¡forming¡¡exact

judgments¡¡of¡¡events¡¡which¡¡apparently¡¡are¡¡fully¡¡understood¡¡and

attested¡¡by¡¡no¡¡matter¡¡how¡¡many¡¡witnesses¡£



We¡¡know¡¡what¡¡ideas¡¡people¡¡had¡¡thirty¡¡years¡¡ago¡¡concerning¡¡the

coup¡¡of¡¡Brumaire¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡was¡¡regarded¡¡as¡¡a¡¡crime¡¡committed¡¡by¡¡the

ambition¡¡of¡¡a¡¡man¡¡who¡¡was¡¡supported¡¡by¡¡his¡¡army¡£¡¡¡¡As¡¡a¡¡matter¡¡of

fact¡¡the¡¡army¡¡played¡¡no¡¡part¡¡whatever¡¡in¡¡the¡¡affair¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡little

body¡¡of¡¡men¡¡who¡¡expelled¡¡the¡¡few¡¡recalcitrant¡¡deputies¡¡were¡¡not

soldiers¡¡even£»¡¡but¡¡the¡¡gendarmes¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Assembly¡¡itself¡£¡¡¡¡The

true¡¡author¡¡of¡¡the¡¡coup¡¡d'etat¡¡was¡¡the¡¡Government¡¡itself£»¡¡with

the¡¡complicity¡¡of¡¡all¡¡France¡£





4¡£¡¡¡¡Causes¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Duration¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Revolution¡£





If¡¡we¡¡limit¡¡the¡¡Revolution¡¡to¡¡the¡¡time¡¡necessary¡¡for¡¡the¡¡conquest

of¡¡its¡¡fundamental¡¡principlesequality¡¡before¡¡the¡¡law£»¡¡free

access¡¡to¡¡public¡¡functions£»¡¡popular¡¡sovereignty£»¡¡control¡¡of

expenditures£»¡¡&c¡£we¡¡may¡¡say¡¡that¡¡it¡¡lasted¡¡only¡¡a¡¡few¡¡months¡£¡¡

Towards¡¡the¡¡middle¡¡of¡¡1789¡¡all¡¡this¡¡was¡¡accomplished£»¡¡and¡¡during

the¡¡years¡¡that¡¡followed¡¡nothing¡¡was¡¡added¡¡to¡¡it£»¡¡yet¡¡the

Revolution¡¡lasted¡¡much¡¡longer¡£



Confining¡¡the¡¡duration¡¡to¡¡the¡¡dates¡¡admitted¡¡by¡¡the¡¡official

historians£»¡¡we¡¡see¡¡it¡¡persisting¡¡until¡¡the¡¡advent¡¡of¡¡Bonaparte£»¡¡a

space¡¡of¡¡some¡¡ten¡¡years¡£



Why¡¡did¡¡this¡¡period¡¡of¡¡disorganisation¡¡and¡¡violence¡¡follow¡¡the

establishment¡¡of¡¡the¡¡new¡¡principles£¿¡¡¡¡We¡¡need¡¡not¡¡seek¡¡the¡¡cause

in¡¡the¡¡foreign¡¡war£»¡¡which¡¡might¡¡on¡¡several¡¡occasions¡¡have¡¡been

terminated£»¡¡thanks¡¡to¡¡the¡¡divisions¡¡of¡¡the¡¡allies¡¡and¡¡the

constant¡¡victories¡¡of¡¡the¡¡French£»¡¡neither¡¡must¡¡we¡¡look¡¡for¡¡it¡¡in

the¡¡sympathy¡¡of¡¡Frenchmen¡¡for¡¡the¡¡revolutionary¡¡Government¡£¡¡

Never¡¡was¡¡rule¡¡more¡¡cordially¡¡hated¡¡and¡¡despised¡¡than¡¡that¡¡of¡¡the

Assemblies¡£¡¡¡¡By¡¡its¡¡revolts¡¡as¡¡well¡¡as¡¡by¡¡its¡¡repeated¡¡votes¡¡a

great¡¡part¡¡of¡¡the¡¡nation¡¡displayed¡¡the¡¡horror¡¡with¡¡which¡¡it

regarded¡¡the¡¡system¡£



This¡¡last¡¡point£»¡¡the¡¡aversion¡¡of¡¡France¡¡for¡¡the¡¡revolutionary

regime£»¡¡so¡¡long¡¡misunderstood£»¡¡has¡¡been¡¡well¡¡displayed¡¡by

recent¡¡historians¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡author¡¡of¡¡the¡¡last¡¡book¡¡published¡¡on¡¡the

Revolution£»¡¡M¡£¡¡Madelin£»¡¡has¡¡well¡¡summarised¡¡their¡¡opinion¡¡in¡¡the

following¡¡words£º



¡®¡®As¡¡early¡¡as¡¡1793¡¡a¡¡party¡¡by¡¡no¡¡means¡¡numerous¡¡had¡¡seized¡¡upon

France£»¡¡the¡¡Revolution£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Republic¡£¡¡¡¡Now£»¡¡three¡­quarters¡¡of

France¡¡longed¡¡for¡¡the¡¡Revolution¡¡to¡¡be¡¡checked£»¡¡or¡¡rather

delivered¡¡from¡¡its¡¡odious¡¡exploiters£»¡¡but¡¡these¡¡held¡¡the¡¡unhappy

country¡¡by¡¡a¡¡thousand¡¡means¡£¡¡¡£¡¡¡£¡¡¡£¡¡¡¡As¡¡the¡¡Terror¡¡was¡¡essential

to¡¡them¡¡if¡¡they¡¡were¡¡to¡¡rule£»¡¡they¡¡struck¡¡at¡¡whomsoever¡¡seemed¡¡at

any¡¡given¡¡moment¡¡to¡¡be¡¡opposed¡¡to¡¡the¡¡Terror£»¡¡were¡¡they¡¡the¡¡best

servants¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Revolution¡£''



Up¡¡to¡¡the¡¡end¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Directory¡¡the¡¡government¡¡was¡¡exercised¡¡by

Jacobins£»¡¡who¡¡merely¡¡desired¡¡to¡¡retain£»¡¡along¡¡with¡¡the¡¡supreme

power£»¡¡the¡¡riches¡¡they¡¡had¡¡accumulated¡¡by¡¡murder¡¡and¡¡pillage£»¡¡and

were¡¡ready¡¡to¡¡surrender¡¡France¡¡to¡¡any¡¡one¡¡who¡¡would¡¡guarantee

them¡¡free¡¡possession¡¡of¡¡these¡£¡¡¡¡That¡¡they¡¡negotiated¡¡the¡¡coup

d'etat¡¡of¡¡Brumaire¡¡with¡¡Napoleon¡¡was¡¡simply¡¡to¡¡the¡¡fact¡¡that

they¡¡had¡¡not¡¡been¡¡able¡¡to¡¡realise¡¡their¡¡wishes¡¡with¡¡regard¡¡to

Louis¡¡XVIII¡£



But¡¡how¡¡explain¡¡the¡¡fact¡¡that¡¡a¡¡Government¡¡so¡¡tyrannical¡¡and¡¡so

dishonoured¡¡was¡¡able¡¡to¡¡survive¡¡for¡¡so¡¡many¡¡years£¿



It¡¡was¡¡not¡¡merely¡¡because¡¡the¡¡revolutionary¡¡religion¡¡still

survived¡¡in¡¡men's¡¡minds£»¡¡nor¡¡because¡¡it¡¡was¡¡forced¡¡on¡¡them¡¡by

means¡¡of¡¡persecution¡¡and¡¡bloodshed£»¡¡but¡¡especially£»¡¡as¡¡I¡¡have

already¡¡stated£»¡¡on¡¡account¡¡of¡¡the¡¡great¡¡interest¡¡which¡¡a¡¡large

portion¡¡of¡¡the¡¡population¡¡had¡¡in¡¡maintaining¡¡it¡£



This¡¡point¡¡is¡¡fundamental¡£¡¡¡¡If¡¡the¡¡Revolution¡¡had¡¡remained¡¡a

theoretical¡¡religion£»¡¡it¡¡would¡¡probably¡¡have¡¡been¡¡of¡¡short

duration¡£¡¡¡¡But¡¡the¡¡belief¡¡which¡¡had¡¡just¡¡been¡¡founded¡¡very

quickly¡¡emerged¡¡from¡¡the¡¡domain¡¡of¡¡pure¡¡theory¡£



The¡¡Revolution¡¡did¡¡not¡¡confine¡¡itself¡¡to¡¡despoiling¡¡the¡¡monarchy£»

the¡¡nobility£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡clergy¡¡of¡¡their¡¡powers¡¡of¡¡government¡£¡¡¡¡In

throwing¡¡into¡¡the¡¡hands¡¡of¡¡the¡¡bourgeoisie¡¡and¡¡the¡¡large

numbers¡¡of¡¡peasantry¡¡the¡¡wealth¡¡and¡¡the¡¡employments¡¡of¡¡the¡¡old

privileged¡¡classes¡¡it¡¡had¡¡at¡¡the¡¡same¡¡stroke¡¡turned¡¡them¡¡into

obstinate¡¡supporters¡¡of¡¡the¡¡revolutionary¡¡system¡£¡¡¡¡All¡¡those¡¡who

had¡¡acquired¡¡the¡¡property¡¡of¡¡which¡¡the¡¡nobles¡¡and¡¡clergy¡¡had¡¡been

despoiled¡¡had¡¡obtained¡¡lands¡¡and¡¡chateaux¡¡at¡¡low¡¡prices£»¡¡and

were¡¡terrified¡¡lest¡¡the¡¡restoration¡¡of¡¡the¡¡monarchy¡¡should¡¡force

them¡¡to¡¡make¡¡general¡¡restitution¡£



It¡¡was¡¡largely¡¡for¡¡these¡¡reasons¡¡that¡¡a¡¡Government¡¡which£»¡¡at¡¡any

normal¡¡period£»¡¡would¡¡never¡¡have¡¡been¡¡endured£»¡¡was¡¡able¡¡to¡¡survive

until¡¡a¡¡master¡¡should¡¡re¡­establish¡¡order£»¡¡while¡¡promising¡¡to

maintain¡¡not¡¡only¡¡the¡¡moral¡¡but¡¡a

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