the psychology of revolution-µÚ4ÕÂ
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¡ª¡ª¡ª¡ªÎ´ÔĶÁÍꣿ¼ÓÈëÊéÇ©ÒѱãÏ´μÌÐøÔĶÁ£¡
make¡¡itself¡¡absolute£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡nation£»¡¡which¡¡claimed¡¡the¡¡right¡¡to
govern¡¡itself¡¡through¡¡the¡¡medium¡¡of¡¡its¡¡representatives¡£
The¡¡great¡¡revolutions¡¡have¡¡usually¡¡commenced¡¡from¡¡the¡¡top£»¡¡not
from¡¡the¡¡bottom£»¡¡but¡¡once¡¡the¡¡people¡¡is¡¡unchained¡¡it¡¡is¡¡to¡¡the
people¡¡that¡¡revolution¡¡owes¡¡its¡¡might¡£
It¡¡is¡¡obvious¡¡that¡¡revolutions¡¡have¡¡never¡¡taken¡¡place£»¡¡and¡¡will
never¡¡take¡¡place£»¡¡save¡¡with¡¡the¡¡aid¡¡of¡¡an¡¡important¡¡fraction¡¡of
the¡¡army¡£¡¡¡¡Royalty¡¡did¡¡not¡¡disappear¡¡in¡¡France¡¡on¡¡the¡¡day¡¡when
Louis¡¡XVI¡£¡¡was¡¡guillotined£»¡¡but¡¡at¡¡the¡¡precise¡¡moment¡¡when¡¡his
mutinous¡¡troops¡¡refused¡¡to¡¡defend¡¡him¡£
It¡¡is¡¡more¡¡particularly¡¡by¡¡mental¡¡contagion¡¡that¡¡armies¡¡become
disaffected£»¡¡being¡¡indifferent¡¡enough¡¡at¡¡heart¡¡to¡¡the¡¡established
order¡¡of¡¡things¡£¡¡¡¡As¡¡soon¡¡as¡¡the¡¡coalition¡¡of¡¡a¡¡few¡¡officers¡¡had
succeeded¡¡in¡¡overthrowing¡¡the¡¡Turkish¡¡Government¡¡the¡¡Greek
officers¡¡thought¡¡to¡¡imitate¡¡them¡¡and¡¡to¡¡change¡¡their¡¡government£»
although¡¡there¡¡was¡¡no¡¡analogy¡¡between¡¡the¡¡two¡¡regimes¡£
A¡¡military¡¡movement¡¡may¡¡overthrow¡¡a¡¡governmentand¡¡in¡¡the
Spanish¡¡republics¡¡the¡¡Government¡¡is¡¡hardly¡¡ever¡¡destroyed¡¡by¡¡any
other¡¡meansbut¡¡if¡¡the¡¡revolution¡¡is¡¡to¡¡be¡¡productive¡¡of¡¡great
results¡¡it¡¡must¡¡always¡¡be¡¡based¡¡upon¡¡general¡¡discontent¡¡and
general¡¡hopes¡£
Unless¡¡it¡¡is¡¡universal¡¡and¡¡excessive£»¡¡discontent¡¡alone¡¡is¡¡not
sufficient¡¡to¡¡bring¡¡about¡¡a¡¡revolution¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡is¡¡easy¡¡to¡¡lead¡¡a
handful¡¡of¡¡men¡¡to¡¡pillage£»¡¡destroy£»¡¡and¡¡massacre£»¡¡but¡¡to¡¡raise¡¡a
whole¡¡people£»¡¡or¡¡any¡¡great¡¡portion¡¡of¡¡that¡¡people£»¡¡calls¡¡for¡¡the
continuous¡¡or¡¡repeated¡¡action¡¡of¡¡leaders¡£¡¡¡¡These¡¡exaggerate¡¡the
discontent£»¡¡they¡¡persuade¡¡the¡¡discontented¡¡that¡¡the¡¡government¡¡is
the¡¡sole¡¡cause¡¡of¡¡all¡¡the¡¡trouble£»¡¡especially¡¡of¡¡the¡¡prevailing
dearth£»¡¡and¡¡assure¡¡men¡¡that¡¡the¡¡new¡¡system¡¡proposed¡¡by¡¡them¡¡will
engender¡¡an¡¡age¡¡of¡¡felicity¡£¡¡¡¡These¡¡ideas¡¡germinate£»¡¡propagating
themselves¡¡by¡¡suggestion¡¡and¡¡contagion£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡moment¡¡arrives
when¡¡the¡¡revolution¡¡is¡¡ripe¡£
In¡¡this¡¡fashion¡¡the¡¡Christian¡¡Revolution¡¡and¡¡the¡¡French
Revolution¡¡were¡¡prepared¡£¡¡¡¡That¡¡the¡¡latter¡¡was¡¡effected¡¡in¡¡a¡¡few
years£»¡¡while¡¡the¡¡first¡¡required¡¡many£»¡¡was¡¡due¡¡to¡¡the¡¡fact¡¡that
the¡¡French¡¡Revolution¡¡promptly¡¡had¡¡an¡¡armed¡¡force¡¡at¡¡its
disposal£»¡¡while¡¡Christianity¡¡was¡¡long¡¡in¡¡winning¡¡material¡¡power¡£¡¡
In¡¡the¡¡beginning¡¡its¡¡only¡¡adepts¡¡were¡¡the¡¡lowly£»¡¡the¡¡poor£»¡¡and
the¡¡slaves£»¡¡filled¡¡with¡¡enthusiasm¡¡by¡¡the¡¡prospect¡¡of¡¡seeing
their¡¡miserable¡¡life¡¡transformed¡¡into¡¡an¡¡eternity¡¡of¡¡delight¡£¡¡¡¡By
a¡¡phenomenon¡¡of¡¡contagion¡¡from¡¡below£»¡¡of¡¡which¡¡history¡¡affords¡¡us
more¡¡than¡¡one¡¡example£»¡¡the¡¡doctrine¡¡finally¡¡invaded¡¡the¡¡upper
strata¡¡of¡¡the¡¡nation£»¡¡but¡¡it¡¡was¡¡a¡¡long¡¡time¡¡before¡¡an
emperor¡¡considered¡¡the¡¡new¡¡faith¡¡sufficiently¡¡widespread¡¡to¡¡be
adopted¡¡as¡¡the¡¡official¡¡religion¡£
4¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Results¡¡of¡¡Political¡¡Revolutions¡£
When¡¡a¡¡political¡¡party¡¡is¡¡triumphant¡¡it¡¡naturally¡¡seeks¡¡to
organise¡¡society¡¡in¡¡accordance¡¡with¡¡its¡¡interests¡£¡¡¡¡The
organisation¡¡will¡¡differ¡¡accordingly¡¡as¡¡the¡¡revolution¡¡has¡¡been
effected¡¡by¡¡the¡¡soldiers£»¡¡the¡¡Radicals£»¡¡or¡¡the¡¡Conservatives£»¡¡&c¡£
The¡¡new¡¡laws¡¡and¡¡institutions¡¡will¡¡depend¡¡on¡¡the¡¡interests¡¡of¡¡the
triumphant¡¡party¡¡and¡¡of¡¡the¡¡classes¡¡which¡¡have¡¡assisted¡¡itthe
clergy¡¡for¡¡instance¡£
If¡¡the¡¡revolution¡¡has¡¡triumphed¡¡only¡¡after¡¡a¡¡violent¡¡struggle£»¡¡as
was¡¡the¡¡case¡¡with¡¡the¡¡French¡¡Revolution£»¡¡the¡¡victors¡¡will¡¡reject
at¡¡one¡¡sweep¡¡the¡¡whole¡¡arsenal¡¡of¡¡the¡¡old¡¡law¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡supporters¡¡of
the¡¡fallen¡¡regime¡¡will¡¡be¡¡persecuted£»¡¡exiled£»¡¡or¡¡exterminated¡£
The¡¡maximum¡¡of¡¡violence¡¡in¡¡these¡¡persecutions¡¡is¡¡attained¡¡when
the¡¡triumphant¡¡party¡¡is¡¡defending¡¡a¡¡belief¡¡in¡¡addition¡¡to¡¡its
material¡¡interests¡£¡¡¡¡Then¡¡the¡¡conquered¡¡need¡¡hope¡¡for¡¡no¡¡pity¡£¡¡
Thus¡¡may¡¡be¡¡explained¡¡the¡¡expulsion¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Moors¡¡from¡¡Spain£»¡¡the
autodafes¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Inquisition£»¡¡the¡¡executions¡¡of¡¡the
Convention£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡recent¡¡laws¡¡against¡¡the¡¡religious
congregations¡¡in¡¡France¡£
The¡¡absolute¡¡power¡¡which¡¡is¡¡assumed¡¡by¡¡the¡¡victors¡¡leads¡¡them
sometimes¡¡to¡¡extreme¡¡measures£»¡¡such¡¡as¡¡the¡¡Convention's¡¡decree
that¡¡gold¡¡was¡¡to¡¡be¡¡replaced¡¡by¡¡paper£»¡¡that¡¡goods¡¡were¡¡to¡¡be¡¡sold
at¡¡determined¡¡prices£»¡¡&c¡£¡¡¡¡Very¡¡soon¡¡it¡¡runs¡¡up¡¡against¡¡a¡¡wall¡¡of
unavoidable¡¡necessities£»¡¡which¡¡turn¡¡opinion¡¡against¡¡its¡¡tyranny£»
and¡¡finally¡¡leave¡¡it¡¡defenceless¡¡before¡¡attack£»¡¡as¡¡befell¡¡at¡¡the
end¡¡of¡¡the¡¡French¡¡Revolution¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡same¡¡thing¡¡happened
recently¡¡to¡¡a¡¡Socialist¡¡Australian¡¡ministry¡¡composed¡¡almost
exclusively¡¡of¡¡working¡men¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡enacted¡¡laws¡¡so¡¡absurd£»¡¡and
accorded¡¡such¡¡privileges¡¡to¡¡the¡¡trade¡¡unions£»¡¡that¡¡public¡¡opinion
rebelled¡¡against¡¡it¡¡so¡¡unanimously¡¡that¡¡in¡¡three¡¡months¡¡it¡¡was
overthrown¡£
But¡¡the¡¡cases¡¡we¡¡have¡¡considered¡¡are¡¡exceptional¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡majority
of¡¡revolutions¡¡have¡¡been¡¡accomplished¡¡in¡¡order¡¡to¡¡place¡¡a¡¡new
sovereign¡¡in¡¡power¡£¡¡¡¡Now¡¡this¡¡sovereign¡¡knows¡¡very¡¡well¡¡that¡¡the
first¡¡condition¡¡of¡¡maintaining¡¡his¡¡power¡¡consists¡¡in¡¡not¡¡too
exclusively¡¡favouring¡¡a¡¡single¡¡class£»¡¡but¡¡in¡¡seeking¡¡to
conciliate¡¡all¡£¡¡¡¡To¡¡do¡¡this¡¡he¡¡will¡¡establish¡¡a¡¡sort¡¡of
equilibrium¡¡between¡¡them£»¡¡so¡¡as¡¡not¡¡to¡¡be¡¡dominated¡¡by¡¡any¡¡one¡¡of
these¡¡classes¡£¡¡¡¡To¡¡allow¡¡one¡¡class¡¡to¡¡become¡¡predominant¡¡is¡¡to
condemn¡¡himself¡¡presently¡¡to¡¡accept¡¡that¡¡class¡¡as¡¡his¡¡master¡£¡¡
This¡¡law¡¡is¡¡one¡¡of¡¡the¡¡most¡¡certain¡¡of¡¡political¡¡psychology¡£¡¡¡¡The
kings¡¡of¡¡France¡¡understood¡¡it¡¡very¡¡well¡¡when¡¡they¡¡struggled¡¡so
energetically¡¡against¡¡the¡¡encroachments¡¡first¡¡of¡¡the¡¡nobility¡¡and
then¡¡of¡¡the¡¡clergy¡£¡¡¡¡If¡¡they¡¡had¡¡not¡¡done¡¡so¡¡their¡¡fate¡¡would
have¡¡been¡¡that¡¡of¡¡the¡¡German¡¡Emperors¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Middle¡¡Ages£»¡¡who£»
excommunicated¡¡by¡¡the¡¡Pope£»¡¡were¡¡reduced£»¡¡like¡¡Henry¡¡IV¡£¡¡at
Canossa£»¡¡to¡¡make¡¡a¡¡pilgrimage¡¡and¡¡humbly¡¡to¡¡sue¡¡for¡¡the¡¡Pope's
forgiveness¡£
This¡¡same¡¡law¡¡has¡¡continually¡¡been¡¡verified¡¡during¡¡the¡¡course¡¡of
history¡£¡¡¡¡When¡¡at¡¡the¡¡end¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Roman¡¡Empire¡¡the¡¡military¡¡caste
became¡¡preponderant£»¡¡the¡¡emperors¡¡depended¡¡entirely¡¡upon¡¡their
soldiers£»¡¡who¡¡appointed¡¡and¡¡deposed¡¡them¡¡at¡¡will¡£
It¡¡was¡¡therefore¡¡a¡¡great¡¡advantage¡¡for¡¡France¡¡that¡¡she¡¡was¡¡so
long¡¡governed¡¡by¡¡a¡¡monarch¡¡almost¡¡absolute£»¡¡supposed¡¡to
hold¡¡his¡¡power¡¡by¡¡divine¡¡right£»¡¡and¡¡surrounded¡¡therefore¡¡by¡¡a
considerable¡¡prestige¡£¡¡¡¡Without¡¡such¡¡an¡¡authority¡¡he¡¡could¡¡have
controlled¡¡neither¡¡the¡¡feudal¡¡nobility£»¡¡nor¡¡the¡¡clergy£»¡¡nor¡¡the
parliaments¡£¡¡¡¡If¡¡Poland£»¡¡towards¡¡the¡¡end¡¡of¡¡the¡¡sixteenth
century£»¡¡had¡¡also¡¡possessed¡¡an¡¡absolute¡¡and¡¡respected¡¡monarchy£»
she¡¡would¡¡not¡¡have¡¡descended¡¡the¡¡path¡¡of¡¡decadence¡¡which¡¡led¡¡to
her¡¡disappearance¡¡from¡¡the¡¡map¡¡of¡¡Europe¡£
We¡¡have¡¡shewn¡¡in¡¡this¡¡chapter¡¡that¡¡political¡¡revolutions¡¡may¡¡be
accompanied¡¡by¡¡important¡¡social¡¡transformations¡£¡¡¡¡We¡¡shall¡¡soon
see¡¡how¡¡slight¡¡are¡¡these¡¡transformations¡¡compared¡¡to¡¡those
produced¡¡by¡¡religious¡¡revolutions¡£
CHAPTER¡¡II
RELIGIOUS¡¡REVOLUTIONS
1¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡importance¡¡of¡¡the¡¡study¡¡of¡¡Religious¡¡Revolutions¡¡in
respect¡¡of¡¡the¡¡comprehension¡¡of¡¡the¡¡great¡¡Political¡¡Revolutions¡£
A¡¡portion¡¡of¡¡this¡¡work¡¡will¡¡be¡¡devoted¡¡to¡¡the¡¡French¡¡Revolution¡£¡¡
It¡¡was¡¡full¡¡of¡¡acts¡¡of¡¡violence¡¡which¡¡naturally¡¡had¡¡their
psychological¡¡causes¡£
These¡¡exceptional¡¡events¡¡will¡¡always¡¡fill¡¡us¡¡with¡¡astonishment£»
and¡¡we¡¡even¡¡feel¡¡them¡¡to¡¡be¡¡inexplicable¡£¡¡¡¡They¡¡become
comprehensible£»¡¡however£»¡¡if¡¡we¡¡consider¡¡that¡¡the¡¡French
Revolution£»¡¡constituting¡¡a¡¡new¡¡religion£»¡¡was¡¡bound¡¡to¡¡obey¡¡the
laws¡¡which¡¡condition¡¡the¡¡propagation¡¡of¡¡all¡¡beliefs¡£¡¡¡¡Its¡¡fury
and¡¡its¡¡hecatombs¡¡will¡¡then¡¡become¡¡intelligible¡£
In¡¡studying¡¡the¡¡history¡¡of¡¡a¡¡great¡¡religious¡¡revolution£»¡¡that¡¡of
the¡¡Reformation£»¡¡we¡¡shall¡¡see¡¡that¡¡a¡¡number¡¡of¡¡psychological
elements¡¡which¡¡figured¡¡therein¡¡were¡¡equally¡¡active¡¡during¡¡the
French¡¡Revolution¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡both¡¡we¡¡observe¡¡the¡¡insignificant¡¡bearing
of¡¡the¡¡rational¡¡value¡¡of¡¡a¡¡belief¡¡upon¡¡its¡¡propagation£»¡¡the
inefficacy¡¡of¡¡persecution£»¡¡the¡¡impossibility¡¡of¡¡tolerance¡¡between
contrary¡¡beliefs£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡violence¡¡and¡¡the¡¡desperate¡¡struggles
resulting¡¡from¡¡the¡¡conflict¡¡of¡¡different¡¡faiths¡£¡¡¡¡We¡¡also¡¡observe
the¡¡exploitation¡¡of¡¡a¡¡belief¡¡by¡¡interests¡¡quite¡¡independent
of¡¡that¡¡belief¡£¡¡¡¡Finally¡¡we¡¡see¡¡that¡¡it¡¡is¡¡impossible¡¡to¡¡modify
the¡¡convictions¡¡of¡¡men¡¡without¡¡also¡¡modifying¡¡their¡¡existence¡£
These¡¡phenomena¡¡verified£»¡¡we¡¡shall¡¡see¡¡plainly¡¡why¡¡the¡¡gospel¡¡of
the¡¡Revolution¡¡was¡¡propagated¡¡by¡¡the¡¡same¡¡methods¡¡as¡¡all¡¡the
religious¡¡gospels£»¡¡notably¡¡that¡¡of¡¡Calvin¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡could¡¡not¡¡have
been¡¡propagated¡¡otherwise¡£
But¡¡although¡¡there¡¡are¡¡close¡¡analogies¡¡between¡¡the¡¡genesis¡¡of¡¡a
religious¡¡revolution£»¡¡such¡¡as¡¡the¡¡Reformation£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡of¡¡a
great¡¡political¡¡revolution¡¡like¡¡our¡¡own£»¡¡their¡¡remote
consequences¡¡are¡¡very¡¡different£»¡¡which¡¡explains¡¡the¡¡difference¡¡of
duration¡¡which¡¡they¡¡display¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡religious¡¡revolutions¡¡no
experience¡¡can¡¡reveal¡¡to¡¡the¡¡faithful¡¡that¡¡they¡¡are¡¡deceived£»
since¡¡they¡¡would¡¡have¡¡to¡¡go¡¡to¡¡heaven¡¡to¡¡make¡¡the¡¡discovery¡£¡¡¡¡In
political¡¡revolutions¡¡experience¡¡quickly¡¡demonstrates¡¡the¡¡error
of¡¡a¡¡false¡¡doctrine¡¡and¡¡forces¡¡men¡¡to¡¡abandon¡¡it¡£
Thus¡¡at¡¡the¡¡end¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Directory¡¡the¡¡application¡¡of¡¡Jacobin
beliefs¡¡had¡¡led¡¡France¡¡to¡¡such¡¡a¡¡degree¡¡of¡¡ruin£»¡¡poverty£»¡¡and
despair¡¡that¡¡the¡¡wildest¡¡Jacobins¡¡themselves¡¡had¡¡to¡¡renounce
their¡¡system¡£¡¡¡¡Nothing¡¡survived¡¡of¡¡their¡¡theories¡¡except¡¡a¡¡few
principles¡¡which¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡verified¡¡by¡¡experience£»¡¡such¡¡as¡¡the
universal¡¡happiness¡¡which¡¡equality¡¡should¡¡bestow¡¡upon¡¡humanity¡£
2¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡beginnings¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Reformation¡¡and¡¡its¡¡first¡¡disciples¡£
The¡¡Reformation¡¡was¡¡finally¡¡to¡¡exercise¡¡a¡¡profound¡¡influence¡¡upon
the¡¡sentiments¡¡and¡¡moral¡¡ideas¡¡of¡¡a¡¡great¡¡proportion¡¡of¡¡mankind¡£¡¡
Modest¡¡in¡¡its¡¡beginnings£»¡¡it¡¡was¡¡at¡¡first¡¡a¡¡simple¡¡struggle
against¡¡the¡¡abuses¡¡of¡¡the¡¡clergy£»¡¡and£»¡¡from¡¡a¡¡practical¡¡point¡¡of
view£»¡¡a¡¡return¡¡to¡¡the¡¡prescriptions¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Gospel¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡never
constituted£»¡¡as¡¡has¡¡been¡¡claimed£»¡¡an¡¡aspiration¡¡towards¡¡freedom
of¡¡thought¡£¡¡¡¡Calvin¡¡was¡¡as¡¡intolerant¡¡as¡¡Robespierre£»¡¡and¡¡all¡¡the
theorists¡¡of¡¡the¡¡age¡¡considered¡¡that¡¡the¡¡religion¡¡of¡¡subjects
must¡¡be¡¡that¡¡of¡¡the¡¡prince¡¡who¡¡governed¡¡them¡£¡¡¡¡Indeed¡¡in¡¡every
country¡¡where¡¡the¡¡Reformation¡¡was¡¡established¡¡the¡¡sovereign
replaced¡¡the¡¡Pope¡¡of¡¡Rome£»¡¡with¡¡the¡¡same¡¡rights¡¡and¡¡the¡¡same
powers¡£
In¡¡France£»¡¡in¡¡default¡¡of¡¡publicity¡¡and¡¡means¡¡of¡¡communication£»
the¡¡new¡¡faith¡¡spread¡¡slowly¡¡enough¡¡at¡¡first¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡was¡¡about¡¡1520
that¡¡Luther¡¡recruited¡¡a¡¡few¡¡adepts£»¡¡and¡¡only¡¡towards¡¡1535¡¡was¡¡the
new¡¡belief¡¡sufficiently¡¡widespread¡¡for¡¡men¡¡to¡¡consider¡¡it
necessary¡¡to¡¡burn¡¡its¡¡disciples¡£
In¡¡conformity¡¡with¡¡a¡¡well¡known¡¡psychological¡¡law£»¡¡these
executions¡¡merely¡¡favoured¡¡the¡¡propagation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Reformation¡£¡¡
Its¡¡first¡¡followers¡¡included¡¡priests¡¡and¡¡magistrates£»¡¡but¡¡were
principally¡¡obscure¡¡artisans¡£¡¡¡¡Their¡¡conversion¡¡was¡¡effected
almost¡¡exclusively¡¡by¡¡mental¡¡contagion¡¡and¡¡suggestion¡£
As¡¡soon¡¡as¡¡a¡¡new¡¡belief¡¡extends¡¡itself£»¡¡we¡¡see¡¡grouped¡¡round¡¡it
many¡¡persons¡¡who¡¡are¡¡indifferent¡¡to¡¡the¡¡belief£»¡¡but¡¡who¡¡find¡¡in
it¡¡a¡¡pretext¡¡or¡¡opportunity¡¡for¡¡gratifying¡¡their¡¡passions¡¡or
their¡¡greed¡£¡¡¡¡This¡¡phenomenon¡¡was¡¡observed¡¡at¡¡the¡¡time¡¡of¡¡the
Reformation¡¡in¡¡many¡¡countries£»¡¡notably¡¡in¡¡Germany¡¡and¡¡in¡¡England¡£
Luther¡¡having¡¡taught¡¡that¡¡the¡¡clergy¡¡had¡¡no¡¡need¡¡of¡¡wealth£»¡¡the