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С˵£º the psychology of revolution ×ÖÊý£º ÿҳ3500×Ö

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¡ª¡ª¡ª¡ªÎ´ÔĶÁÍꣿ¼ÓÈëÊéÇ©ÒѱãÏ´μÌÐøÔĶÁ£¡




make¡¡itself¡¡absolute£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡nation£»¡¡which¡¡claimed¡¡the¡¡right¡¡to

govern¡¡itself¡¡through¡¡the¡¡medium¡¡of¡¡its¡¡representatives¡£



The¡¡great¡¡revolutions¡¡have¡¡usually¡¡commenced¡¡from¡¡the¡¡top£»¡¡not

from¡¡the¡¡bottom£»¡¡but¡¡once¡¡the¡¡people¡¡is¡¡unchained¡¡it¡¡is¡¡to¡¡the

people¡¡that¡¡revolution¡¡owes¡¡its¡¡might¡£



It¡¡is¡¡obvious¡¡that¡¡revolutions¡¡have¡¡never¡¡taken¡¡place£»¡¡and¡¡will

never¡¡take¡¡place£»¡¡save¡¡with¡¡the¡¡aid¡¡of¡¡an¡¡important¡¡fraction¡¡of

the¡¡army¡£¡¡¡¡Royalty¡¡did¡¡not¡¡disappear¡¡in¡¡France¡¡on¡¡the¡¡day¡¡when

Louis¡¡XVI¡£¡¡was¡¡guillotined£»¡¡but¡¡at¡¡the¡¡precise¡¡moment¡¡when¡¡his

mutinous¡¡troops¡¡refused¡¡to¡¡defend¡¡him¡£



It¡¡is¡¡more¡¡particularly¡¡by¡¡mental¡¡contagion¡¡that¡¡armies¡¡become

disaffected£»¡¡being¡¡indifferent¡¡enough¡¡at¡¡heart¡¡to¡¡the¡¡established

order¡¡of¡¡things¡£¡¡¡¡As¡¡soon¡¡as¡¡the¡¡coalition¡¡of¡¡a¡¡few¡¡officers¡¡had

succeeded¡¡in¡¡overthrowing¡¡the¡¡Turkish¡¡Government¡¡the¡¡Greek

officers¡¡thought¡¡to¡¡imitate¡¡them¡¡and¡¡to¡¡change¡¡their¡¡government£»

although¡¡there¡¡was¡¡no¡¡analogy¡¡between¡¡the¡¡two¡¡regimes¡£



A¡¡military¡¡movement¡¡may¡¡overthrow¡¡a¡¡governmentand¡¡in¡¡the

Spanish¡¡republics¡¡the¡¡Government¡¡is¡¡hardly¡¡ever¡¡destroyed¡¡by¡¡any

other¡¡meansbut¡¡if¡¡the¡¡revolution¡¡is¡¡to¡¡be¡¡productive¡¡of¡¡great

results¡¡it¡¡must¡¡always¡¡be¡¡based¡¡upon¡¡general¡¡discontent¡¡and

general¡¡hopes¡£



Unless¡¡it¡¡is¡¡universal¡¡and¡¡excessive£»¡¡discontent¡¡alone¡¡is¡¡not

sufficient¡¡to¡¡bring¡¡about¡¡a¡¡revolution¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡is¡¡easy¡¡to¡¡lead¡¡a

handful¡¡of¡¡men¡¡to¡¡pillage£»¡¡destroy£»¡¡and¡¡massacre£»¡¡but¡¡to¡¡raise¡¡a

whole¡¡people£»¡¡or¡¡any¡¡great¡¡portion¡¡of¡¡that¡¡people£»¡¡calls¡¡for¡¡the

continuous¡¡or¡¡repeated¡¡action¡¡of¡¡leaders¡£¡¡¡¡These¡¡exaggerate¡¡the

discontent£»¡¡they¡¡persuade¡¡the¡¡discontented¡¡that¡¡the¡¡government¡¡is

the¡¡sole¡¡cause¡¡of¡¡all¡¡the¡¡trouble£»¡¡especially¡¡of¡¡the¡¡prevailing

dearth£»¡¡and¡¡assure¡¡men¡¡that¡¡the¡¡new¡¡system¡¡proposed¡¡by¡¡them¡¡will

engender¡¡an¡¡age¡¡of¡¡felicity¡£¡¡¡¡These¡¡ideas¡¡germinate£»¡¡propagating

themselves¡¡by¡¡suggestion¡¡and¡¡contagion£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡moment¡¡arrives

when¡¡the¡¡revolution¡¡is¡¡ripe¡£



In¡¡this¡¡fashion¡¡the¡¡Christian¡¡Revolution¡¡and¡¡the¡¡French

Revolution¡¡were¡¡prepared¡£¡¡¡¡That¡¡the¡¡latter¡¡was¡¡effected¡¡in¡¡a¡¡few

years£»¡¡while¡¡the¡¡first¡¡required¡¡many£»¡¡was¡¡due¡¡to¡¡the¡¡fact¡¡that

the¡¡French¡¡Revolution¡¡promptly¡¡had¡¡an¡¡armed¡¡force¡¡at¡¡its

disposal£»¡¡while¡¡Christianity¡¡was¡¡long¡¡in¡¡winning¡¡material¡¡power¡£¡¡

In¡¡the¡¡beginning¡¡its¡¡only¡¡adepts¡¡were¡¡the¡¡lowly£»¡¡the¡¡poor£»¡¡and

the¡¡slaves£»¡¡filled¡¡with¡¡enthusiasm¡¡by¡¡the¡¡prospect¡¡of¡¡seeing

their¡¡miserable¡¡life¡¡transformed¡¡into¡¡an¡¡eternity¡¡of¡¡delight¡£¡¡¡¡By

a¡¡phenomenon¡¡of¡¡contagion¡¡from¡¡below£»¡¡of¡¡which¡¡history¡¡affords¡¡us

more¡¡than¡¡one¡¡example£»¡¡the¡¡doctrine¡¡finally¡¡invaded¡¡the¡¡upper

strata¡¡of¡¡the¡¡nation£»¡¡but¡¡it¡¡was¡¡a¡¡long¡¡time¡¡before¡¡an

emperor¡¡considered¡¡the¡¡new¡¡faith¡¡sufficiently¡¡widespread¡¡to¡¡be

adopted¡¡as¡¡the¡¡official¡¡religion¡£





4¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Results¡¡of¡¡Political¡¡Revolutions¡£





When¡¡a¡¡political¡¡party¡¡is¡¡triumphant¡¡it¡¡naturally¡¡seeks¡¡to

organise¡¡society¡¡in¡¡accordance¡¡with¡¡its¡¡interests¡£¡¡¡¡The

organisation¡¡will¡¡differ¡¡accordingly¡¡as¡¡the¡¡revolution¡¡has¡¡been

effected¡¡by¡¡the¡¡soldiers£»¡¡the¡¡Radicals£»¡¡or¡¡the¡¡Conservatives£»¡¡&c¡£



The¡¡new¡¡laws¡¡and¡¡institutions¡¡will¡¡depend¡¡on¡¡the¡¡interests¡¡of¡¡the

triumphant¡¡party¡¡and¡¡of¡¡the¡¡classes¡¡which¡¡have¡¡assisted¡¡itthe

clergy¡¡for¡¡instance¡£



If¡¡the¡¡revolution¡¡has¡¡triumphed¡¡only¡¡after¡¡a¡¡violent¡¡struggle£»¡¡as

was¡¡the¡¡case¡¡with¡¡the¡¡French¡¡Revolution£»¡¡the¡¡victors¡¡will¡¡reject

at¡¡one¡¡sweep¡¡the¡¡whole¡¡arsenal¡¡of¡¡the¡¡old¡¡law¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡supporters¡¡of

the¡¡fallen¡¡regime¡¡will¡¡be¡¡persecuted£»¡¡exiled£»¡¡or¡¡exterminated¡£



The¡¡maximum¡¡of¡¡violence¡¡in¡¡these¡¡persecutions¡¡is¡¡attained¡¡when

the¡¡triumphant¡¡party¡¡is¡¡defending¡¡a¡¡belief¡¡in¡¡addition¡¡to¡¡its

material¡¡interests¡£¡¡¡¡Then¡¡the¡¡conquered¡¡need¡¡hope¡¡for¡¡no¡¡pity¡£¡¡

Thus¡¡may¡¡be¡¡explained¡¡the¡¡expulsion¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Moors¡¡from¡¡Spain£»¡¡the

autodafes¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Inquisition£»¡¡the¡¡executions¡¡of¡¡the

Convention£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡recent¡¡laws¡¡against¡¡the¡¡religious

congregations¡¡in¡¡France¡£



The¡¡absolute¡¡power¡¡which¡¡is¡¡assumed¡¡by¡¡the¡¡victors¡¡leads¡¡them

sometimes¡¡to¡¡extreme¡¡measures£»¡¡such¡¡as¡¡the¡¡Convention's¡¡decree

that¡¡gold¡¡was¡¡to¡¡be¡¡replaced¡¡by¡¡paper£»¡¡that¡¡goods¡¡were¡¡to¡¡be¡¡sold

at¡¡determined¡¡prices£»¡¡&c¡£¡¡¡¡Very¡¡soon¡¡it¡¡runs¡¡up¡¡against¡¡a¡¡wall¡¡of

unavoidable¡¡necessities£»¡¡which¡¡turn¡¡opinion¡¡against¡¡its¡¡tyranny£»

and¡¡finally¡¡leave¡¡it¡¡defenceless¡¡before¡¡attack£»¡¡as¡¡befell¡¡at¡¡the

end¡¡of¡¡the¡¡French¡¡Revolution¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡same¡¡thing¡¡happened

recently¡¡to¡¡a¡¡Socialist¡¡Australian¡¡ministry¡¡composed¡¡almost

exclusively¡¡of¡¡working¡­men¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡enacted¡¡laws¡¡so¡¡absurd£»¡¡and

accorded¡¡such¡¡privileges¡¡to¡¡the¡¡trade¡¡unions£»¡¡that¡¡public¡¡opinion

rebelled¡¡against¡¡it¡¡so¡¡unanimously¡¡that¡¡in¡¡three¡¡months¡¡it¡¡was

overthrown¡£



But¡¡the¡¡cases¡¡we¡¡have¡¡considered¡¡are¡¡exceptional¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡majority

of¡¡revolutions¡¡have¡¡been¡¡accomplished¡¡in¡¡order¡¡to¡¡place¡¡a¡¡new

sovereign¡¡in¡¡power¡£¡¡¡¡Now¡¡this¡¡sovereign¡¡knows¡¡very¡¡well¡¡that¡¡the

first¡¡condition¡¡of¡¡maintaining¡¡his¡¡power¡¡consists¡¡in¡¡not¡¡too

exclusively¡¡favouring¡¡a¡¡single¡¡class£»¡¡but¡¡in¡¡seeking¡¡to

conciliate¡¡all¡£¡¡¡¡To¡¡do¡¡this¡¡he¡¡will¡¡establish¡¡a¡¡sort¡¡of

equilibrium¡¡between¡¡them£»¡¡so¡¡as¡¡not¡¡to¡¡be¡¡dominated¡¡by¡¡any¡¡one¡¡of

these¡¡classes¡£¡¡¡¡To¡¡allow¡¡one¡¡class¡¡to¡¡become¡¡predominant¡¡is¡¡to

condemn¡¡himself¡¡presently¡¡to¡¡accept¡¡that¡¡class¡¡as¡¡his¡¡master¡£¡¡

This¡¡law¡¡is¡¡one¡¡of¡¡the¡¡most¡¡certain¡¡of¡¡political¡¡psychology¡£¡¡¡¡The

kings¡¡of¡¡France¡¡understood¡¡it¡¡very¡¡well¡¡when¡¡they¡¡struggled¡¡so

energetically¡¡against¡¡the¡¡encroachments¡¡first¡¡of¡¡the¡¡nobility¡¡and

then¡¡of¡¡the¡¡clergy¡£¡¡¡¡If¡¡they¡¡had¡¡not¡¡done¡¡so¡¡their¡¡fate¡¡would

have¡¡been¡¡that¡¡of¡¡the¡¡German¡¡Emperors¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Middle¡¡Ages£»¡¡who£»

excommunicated¡¡by¡¡the¡¡Pope£»¡¡were¡¡reduced£»¡¡like¡¡Henry¡¡IV¡£¡¡at

Canossa£»¡¡to¡¡make¡¡a¡¡pilgrimage¡¡and¡¡humbly¡¡to¡¡sue¡¡for¡¡the¡¡Pope's

forgiveness¡£



This¡¡same¡¡law¡¡has¡¡continually¡¡been¡¡verified¡¡during¡¡the¡¡course¡¡of

history¡£¡¡¡¡When¡¡at¡¡the¡¡end¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Roman¡¡Empire¡¡the¡¡military¡¡caste

became¡¡preponderant£»¡¡the¡¡emperors¡¡depended¡¡entirely¡¡upon¡¡their

soldiers£»¡¡who¡¡appointed¡¡and¡¡deposed¡¡them¡¡at¡¡will¡£



It¡¡was¡¡therefore¡¡a¡¡great¡¡advantage¡¡for¡¡France¡¡that¡¡she¡¡was¡¡so

long¡¡governed¡¡by¡¡a¡¡monarch¡¡almost¡¡absolute£»¡¡supposed¡¡to

hold¡¡his¡¡power¡¡by¡¡divine¡¡right£»¡¡and¡¡surrounded¡¡therefore¡¡by¡¡a

considerable¡¡prestige¡£¡¡¡¡Without¡¡such¡¡an¡¡authority¡¡he¡¡could¡¡have

controlled¡¡neither¡¡the¡¡feudal¡¡nobility£»¡¡nor¡¡the¡¡clergy£»¡¡nor¡¡the

parliaments¡£¡¡¡¡If¡¡Poland£»¡¡towards¡¡the¡¡end¡¡of¡¡the¡¡sixteenth

century£»¡¡had¡¡also¡¡possessed¡¡an¡¡absolute¡¡and¡¡respected¡¡monarchy£»

she¡¡would¡¡not¡¡have¡¡descended¡¡the¡¡path¡¡of¡¡decadence¡¡which¡¡led¡¡to

her¡¡disappearance¡¡from¡¡the¡¡map¡¡of¡¡Europe¡£



We¡¡have¡¡shewn¡¡in¡¡this¡¡chapter¡¡that¡¡political¡¡revolutions¡¡may¡¡be

accompanied¡¡by¡¡important¡¡social¡¡transformations¡£¡¡¡¡We¡¡shall¡¡soon

see¡¡how¡¡slight¡¡are¡¡these¡¡transformations¡¡compared¡¡to¡¡those

produced¡¡by¡¡religious¡¡revolutions¡£







CHAPTER¡¡II



RELIGIOUS¡¡REVOLUTIONS



1¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡importance¡¡of¡¡the¡¡study¡¡of¡¡Religious¡¡Revolutions¡¡in

respect¡¡of¡¡the¡¡comprehension¡¡of¡¡the¡¡great¡¡Political¡¡Revolutions¡£





A¡¡portion¡¡of¡¡this¡¡work¡¡will¡¡be¡¡devoted¡¡to¡¡the¡¡French¡¡Revolution¡£¡¡

It¡¡was¡¡full¡¡of¡¡acts¡¡of¡¡violence¡¡which¡¡naturally¡¡had¡¡their

psychological¡¡causes¡£



These¡¡exceptional¡¡events¡¡will¡¡always¡¡fill¡¡us¡¡with¡¡astonishment£»

and¡¡we¡¡even¡¡feel¡¡them¡¡to¡¡be¡¡inexplicable¡£¡¡¡¡They¡¡become

comprehensible£»¡¡however£»¡¡if¡¡we¡¡consider¡¡that¡¡the¡¡French

Revolution£»¡¡constituting¡¡a¡¡new¡¡religion£»¡¡was¡¡bound¡¡to¡¡obey¡¡the

laws¡¡which¡¡condition¡¡the¡¡propagation¡¡of¡¡all¡¡beliefs¡£¡¡¡¡Its¡¡fury

and¡¡its¡¡hecatombs¡¡will¡¡then¡¡become¡¡intelligible¡£



In¡¡studying¡¡the¡¡history¡¡of¡¡a¡¡great¡¡religious¡¡revolution£»¡¡that¡¡of

the¡¡Reformation£»¡¡we¡¡shall¡¡see¡¡that¡¡a¡¡number¡¡of¡¡psychological

elements¡¡which¡¡figured¡¡therein¡¡were¡¡equally¡¡active¡¡during¡¡the

French¡¡Revolution¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡both¡¡we¡¡observe¡¡the¡¡insignificant¡¡bearing

of¡¡the¡¡rational¡¡value¡¡of¡¡a¡¡belief¡¡upon¡¡its¡¡propagation£»¡¡the

inefficacy¡¡of¡¡persecution£»¡¡the¡¡impossibility¡¡of¡¡tolerance¡¡between

contrary¡¡beliefs£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡violence¡¡and¡¡the¡¡desperate¡¡struggles

resulting¡¡from¡¡the¡¡conflict¡¡of¡¡different¡¡faiths¡£¡¡¡¡We¡¡also¡¡observe

the¡¡exploitation¡¡of¡¡a¡¡belief¡¡by¡¡interests¡¡quite¡¡independent

of¡¡that¡¡belief¡£¡¡¡¡Finally¡¡we¡¡see¡¡that¡¡it¡¡is¡¡impossible¡¡to¡¡modify

the¡¡convictions¡¡of¡¡men¡¡without¡¡also¡¡modifying¡¡their¡¡existence¡£



These¡¡phenomena¡¡verified£»¡¡we¡¡shall¡¡see¡¡plainly¡¡why¡¡the¡¡gospel¡¡of

the¡¡Revolution¡¡was¡¡propagated¡¡by¡¡the¡¡same¡¡methods¡¡as¡¡all¡¡the

religious¡¡gospels£»¡¡notably¡¡that¡¡of¡¡Calvin¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡could¡¡not¡¡have

been¡¡propagated¡¡otherwise¡£



But¡¡although¡¡there¡¡are¡¡close¡¡analogies¡¡between¡¡the¡¡genesis¡¡of¡¡a

religious¡¡revolution£»¡¡such¡¡as¡¡the¡¡Reformation£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡of¡¡a

great¡¡political¡¡revolution¡¡like¡¡our¡¡own£»¡¡their¡¡remote

consequences¡¡are¡¡very¡¡different£»¡¡which¡¡explains¡¡the¡¡difference¡¡of

duration¡¡which¡¡they¡¡display¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡religious¡¡revolutions¡¡no

experience¡¡can¡¡reveal¡¡to¡¡the¡¡faithful¡¡that¡¡they¡¡are¡¡deceived£»

since¡¡they¡¡would¡¡have¡¡to¡¡go¡¡to¡¡heaven¡¡to¡¡make¡¡the¡¡discovery¡£¡¡¡¡In

political¡¡revolutions¡¡experience¡¡quickly¡¡demonstrates¡¡the¡¡error

of¡¡a¡¡false¡¡doctrine¡¡and¡¡forces¡¡men¡¡to¡¡abandon¡¡it¡£



Thus¡¡at¡¡the¡¡end¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Directory¡¡the¡¡application¡¡of¡¡Jacobin

beliefs¡¡had¡¡led¡¡France¡¡to¡¡such¡¡a¡¡degree¡¡of¡¡ruin£»¡¡poverty£»¡¡and

despair¡¡that¡¡the¡¡wildest¡¡Jacobins¡¡themselves¡¡had¡¡to¡¡renounce

their¡¡system¡£¡¡¡¡Nothing¡¡survived¡¡of¡¡their¡¡theories¡¡except¡¡a¡¡few

principles¡¡which¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡verified¡¡by¡¡experience£»¡¡such¡¡as¡¡the

universal¡¡happiness¡¡which¡¡equality¡¡should¡¡bestow¡¡upon¡¡humanity¡£





2¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡beginnings¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Reformation¡¡and¡¡its¡¡first¡¡disciples¡£





The¡¡Reformation¡¡was¡¡finally¡¡to¡¡exercise¡¡a¡¡profound¡¡influence¡¡upon

the¡¡sentiments¡¡and¡¡moral¡¡ideas¡¡of¡¡a¡¡great¡¡proportion¡¡of¡¡mankind¡£¡¡

Modest¡¡in¡¡its¡¡beginnings£»¡¡it¡¡was¡¡at¡¡first¡¡a¡¡simple¡¡struggle

against¡¡the¡¡abuses¡¡of¡¡the¡¡clergy£»¡¡and£»¡¡from¡¡a¡¡practical¡¡point¡¡of

view£»¡¡a¡¡return¡¡to¡¡the¡¡prescriptions¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Gospel¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡never

constituted£»¡¡as¡¡has¡¡been¡¡claimed£»¡¡an¡¡aspiration¡¡towards¡¡freedom

of¡¡thought¡£¡¡¡¡Calvin¡¡was¡¡as¡¡intolerant¡¡as¡¡Robespierre£»¡¡and¡¡all¡¡the

theorists¡¡of¡¡the¡¡age¡¡considered¡¡that¡¡the¡¡religion¡¡of¡¡subjects

must¡¡be¡¡that¡¡of¡¡the¡¡prince¡¡who¡¡governed¡¡them¡£¡¡¡¡Indeed¡¡in¡¡every

country¡¡where¡¡the¡¡Reformation¡¡was¡¡established¡¡the¡¡sovereign

replaced¡¡the¡¡Pope¡¡of¡¡Rome£»¡¡with¡¡the¡¡same¡¡rights¡¡and¡¡the¡¡same

powers¡£



In¡¡France£»¡¡in¡¡default¡¡of¡¡publicity¡¡and¡¡means¡¡of¡¡communication£»

the¡¡new¡¡faith¡¡spread¡¡slowly¡¡enough¡¡at¡¡first¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡was¡¡about¡¡1520

that¡¡Luther¡¡recruited¡¡a¡¡few¡¡adepts£»¡¡and¡¡only¡¡towards¡¡1535¡¡was¡¡the

new¡¡belief¡¡sufficiently¡¡widespread¡¡for¡¡men¡¡to¡¡consider¡¡it

necessary¡¡to¡¡burn¡¡its¡¡disciples¡£



In¡¡conformity¡¡with¡¡a¡¡well¡­known¡¡psychological¡¡law£»¡¡these

executions¡¡merely¡¡favoured¡¡the¡¡propagation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Reformation¡£¡¡

Its¡¡first¡¡followers¡¡included¡¡priests¡¡and¡¡magistrates£»¡¡but¡¡were

principally¡¡obscure¡¡artisans¡£¡¡¡¡Their¡¡conversion¡¡was¡¡effected

almost¡¡exclusively¡¡by¡¡mental¡¡contagion¡¡and¡¡suggestion¡£



As¡¡soon¡¡as¡¡a¡¡new¡¡belief¡¡extends¡¡itself£»¡¡we¡¡see¡¡grouped¡¡round¡¡it

many¡¡persons¡¡who¡¡are¡¡indifferent¡¡to¡¡the¡¡belief£»¡¡but¡¡who¡¡find¡¡in

it¡¡a¡¡pretext¡¡or¡¡opportunity¡¡for¡¡gratifying¡¡their¡¡passions¡¡or

their¡¡greed¡£¡¡¡¡This¡¡phenomenon¡¡was¡¡observed¡¡at¡¡the¡¡time¡¡of¡¡the

Reformation¡¡in¡¡many¡¡countries£»¡¡notably¡¡in¡¡Germany¡¡and¡¡in¡¡England¡£



Luther¡¡having¡¡taught¡¡that¡¡the¡¡clergy¡¡had¡¡no¡¡need¡¡of¡¡wealth£»¡¡the

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