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С˵£º the psychology of revolution ×ÖÊý£º ÿҳ3500×Ö

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¡ª¡ª¡ª¡ªÎ´ÔĶÁÍꣿ¼ÓÈëÊéÇ©ÒѱãÏ´μÌÐøÔĶÁ£¡




people£»¡¡of¡¡which¡¡the¡¡people¡¡know¡¡nothing£»¡¡and¡¡by¡¡the¡¡application

of¡¡which¡¡they¡¡would¡¡have¡¡nothing¡¡to¡¡gain¡£¡¡¡¡Although¡¡the¡¡working¡­

man¡¡possesses¡¡the¡¡theoretical¡¡right¡¡of¡¡passing¡¡the¡¡barriers¡¡which

separate¡¡him¡¡from¡¡the¡¡upper¡¡classes¡¡by¡¡a¡¡whole¡¡series¡¡of

competitions¡¡and¡¡examinations£»¡¡his¡¡chance¡¡of¡¡reaching¡¡them¡¡is¡¡in

reality¡¡extremely¡¡slight¡£



The¡¡democracy¡¡of¡¡the¡¡lettered¡¡classes¡¡has¡¡no¡¡other¡¡object¡¡than¡¡to

set¡¡up¡¡a¡¡selection¡¡which¡¡shall¡¡recruit¡¡the¡¡directing¡¡classes

exclusively¡¡from¡¡themselves¡£¡¡¡¡I¡¡should¡¡have¡¡nothing¡¡to¡¡say

against¡¡this¡¡if¡¡the¡¡selection¡¡were¡¡real¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡would¡¡then

constitute¡¡the¡¡application¡¡of¡¡the¡¡maxim¡¡of¡¡Napoleon£º¡¡¡¡¡®¡®The¡¡true

method¡¡of¡¡government¡¡is¡¡to¡¡employ¡¡the¡¡aristocracy£»¡¡but¡¡under¡¡the

forms¡¡of¡¡democracy¡£''



Unhappily¡¡the¡¡democracy¡¡of¡¡the¡¡¡®¡®intellectuals''¡¡would¡¡simply

lead¡¡to¡¡the¡¡substitution¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Divine¡¡right¡¡of¡¡kings¡¡by¡¡the

Divine¡¡right¡¡of¡¡a¡¡petty¡¡oligarchy£»¡¡which¡¡is¡¡too¡¡often¡¡narrow¡¡and

tyrannical¡£¡¡¡¡Liberty¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡created¡¡by¡¡replacing¡¡a¡¡tyranny¡£



Popular¡¡democracy¡¡by¡¡no¡¡means¡¡aims¡¡at¡¡manufacturing¡¡rulers¡£¡¡

Dominated¡¡entirely¡¡by¡¡the¡¡spirit¡¡of¡¡equality¡¡and¡¡the¡¡desire¡¡to

ameliorate¡¡the¡¡lot¡¡of¡¡the¡¡workers£»¡¡it¡¡rejects¡¡the¡¡idea¡¡of

fraternity£»¡¡and¡¡exhibits¡¡no¡¡anxiety¡¡in¡¡respect¡¡of¡¡liberty¡£¡¡¡¡No

government¡¡is¡¡conceivable¡¡to¡¡popular¡¡democracy¡¡except¡¡in¡¡the¡¡form

of¡¡an¡¡autocracy¡£¡¡¡¡We¡¡see¡¡this£»¡¡not¡¡only¡¡in¡¡history£»¡¡which¡¡shows

us¡¡that¡¡since¡¡the¡¡Revolution¡¡all¡¡despotic¡¡Governments¡¡have¡¡been

vigorously¡¡acclaimed£»¡¡but¡¡also¡¡in¡¡the¡¡autocratic¡¡fashion¡¡in¡¡which

the¡¡workers'¡¡trades¡¡unions¡¡are¡¡conducted¡£



This¡¡profound¡¡distinction¡¡between¡¡the¡¡democracy¡¡of¡¡the¡¡lettered

classes¡¡and¡¡popular¡¡democracy¡¡is¡¡far¡¡more¡¡obvious¡¡to¡¡the¡¡workers

than¡¡to¡¡the¡¡intellectuals¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡their¡¡mentalities¡¡there¡¡is¡¡nothing

in¡¡common£»¡¡the¡¡two¡¡classes¡¡do¡¡not¡¡speak¡¡the¡¡same¡¡language¡£¡¡¡¡The

syndicalists¡¡emphatically¡¡assert¡¡to¡­day¡¡that¡¡no¡¡alliance¡¡could

possibly¡¡exist¡¡between¡¡them¡¡and¡¡the¡¡politicians¡¡of¡¡the

bourgeoisie¡£¡¡¡¡This¡¡assertion¡¡is¡¡strictly¡¡true¡£



It¡¡was¡¡always¡¡so£»¡¡and¡¡this£»¡¡no¡¡doubt£»¡¡is¡¡why¡¡popular

democracy£»¡¡from¡¡Plato's¡¡to¡¡our¡¡own¡¡times£»¡¡has¡¡never¡¡been¡¡defended

by¡¡the¡¡great¡¡thinkers¡£



This¡¡fact¡¡has¡¡greatly¡¡struck¡¡Emile¡¡Faguet¡£¡¡¡¡¡®¡®Almost¡¡all¡¡the

thinkers¡¡of¡¡the¡¡nineteenth¡¡century£»''¡¡he¡¡says£»¡¡¡®¡®were¡¡not

democrats¡£¡¡¡¡When¡¡I¡¡was¡¡writing¡¡my¡¡Politiques¡¡et¡¡moralistes¡¡du

XIXe¡¡siecle¡¡this¡¡was¡¡my¡¡despair¡£¡¡¡¡I¡¡could¡¡not¡¡find¡¡one¡¡who¡¡had

been¡¡a¡¡democrat£»¡¡yet¡¡I¡¡was¡¡extremely¡¡anxious¡¡to¡¡find¡¡one¡¡so¡¡that

I¡¡could¡¡give¡¡the¡¡democratic¡¡doctrine¡¡as¡¡formulated¡¡by¡¡him¡£''



The¡¡eminent¡¡writer¡¡might¡¡certainly¡¡have¡¡found¡¡plenty¡¡of

professional¡¡politicians£»¡¡but¡¡these¡¡latter¡¡rarely¡¡belong¡¡to¡¡the

category¡¡of¡¡thinkers¡£





2¡£¡¡¡¡Natural¡¡Inequalities¡¡and¡¡Democratic¡¡Equalisation¡£





The¡¡difficulty¡¡of¡¡reconciling¡¡democratic¡¡equalisation¡¡with

natural¡¡inequalities¡¡constitutes¡¡one¡¡of¡¡the¡¡most¡¡difficult

problems¡¡of¡¡the¡¡present¡¡hour¡£¡¡¡¡We¡¡know¡¡what¡¡are¡¡the¡¡desires¡¡of

democracy¡£¡¡¡¡Let¡¡us¡¡see¡¡what¡¡Nature¡¡replies¡¡to¡¡these¡¡demands¡£



The¡¡democratic¡¡ideas¡¡which¡¡have¡¡so¡¡often¡¡shaken¡¡the¡¡world¡¡from

the¡¡heroic¡¡ages¡¡of¡¡Greece¡¡to¡¡modern¡¡times¡¡are¡¡always¡¡clashing

with¡¡natural¡¡inequalities¡£¡¡¡¡Some¡¡observers¡¡have¡¡held£»¡¡with

Helvetius£»¡¡that¡¡the¡¡inequality¡¡between¡¡men¡¡is¡¡created¡¡by

education¡£



As¡¡a¡¡matter¡¡of¡¡fact£»¡¡Nature¡¡does¡¡not¡¡know¡¡such¡¡a¡¡thing¡¡as

equality¡£¡¡¡¡She¡¡distributes¡¡unevenly¡¡genius£»¡¡beauty£»¡¡health£»

vigour£»¡¡intelligence£»¡¡and¡¡all¡¡the¡¡qualities¡¡which¡¡confer¡¡on¡¡their

possessors¡¡a¡¡superiority¡¡over¡¡their¡¡fellows¡£



No¡¡theory¡¡can¡¡alter¡¡these¡¡discrepancies£»¡¡so¡¡that¡¡democratic

doctrines¡¡will¡¡remain¡¡confined¡¡to¡¡words¡¡until¡¡the¡¡laws¡¡of

heredity¡¡consent¡¡to¡¡unify¡¡the¡¡capacities¡¡of¡¡men¡£



Can¡¡we¡¡suppose¡¡that¡¡societies¡¡will¡¡ever¡¡succeed¡¡in¡¡establishing

artificially¡¡the¡¡equality¡¡refused¡¡by¡¡Nature£¿



A¡¡few¡¡theorists¡¡have¡¡believed¡¡for¡¡a¡¡long¡¡time¡¡that¡¡education

might¡¡effect¡¡a¡¡general¡¡levelling¡£¡¡¡¡Many¡¡years¡¡of¡¡experience¡¡have

shown¡¡the¡¡depth¡¡of¡¡this¡¡illusion¡£



It¡¡would¡¡not£»¡¡however£»¡¡be¡¡impossible¡¡for¡¡a¡¡triumphant¡¡Socialism

to¡¡establish¡¡equality¡¡for¡¡a¡¡time¡¡by¡¡rigorously¡¡eliminating¡¡all

superior¡¡individuals¡£¡¡¡¡One¡¡can¡¡easily¡¡foresee¡¡what¡¡would¡¡become

of¡¡a¡¡people¡¡that¡¡had¡¡suppressed¡¡its¡¡best¡¡individuals¡¡while

surrounded¡¡by¡¡other¡¡nations¡¡progressing¡¡by¡¡means¡¡of¡¡their¡¡best

individuals¡£



Not¡¡only¡¡does¡¡Nature¡¡not¡¡know¡¡equality£»¡¡but¡¡since¡¡the¡¡beginning

of¡¡the¡¡ages¡¡she¡¡has¡¡always¡¡realised¡¡progress¡¡by¡¡means¡¡of

successive¡¡differentiationsthat¡¡is¡¡to¡¡say£»¡¡by¡¡increasing

inequalities¡£¡¡¡¡These¡¡alone¡¡could¡¡raise¡¡the¡¡obscure¡¡cell¡¡of¡¡the

early¡¡geological¡¡periods¡¡to¡¡the¡¡superior¡¡beings¡¡whose¡¡inventions

were¡¡to¡¡change¡¡the¡¡face¡¡of¡¡the¡¡earth¡£



The¡¡same¡¡phenomenon¡¡is¡¡to¡¡be¡¡observed¡¡in¡¡societies¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡forms¡¡of

democracy¡¡which¡¡select¡¡the¡¡better¡¡elements¡¡of¡¡the¡¡popular¡¡classes

finally¡¡result¡¡in¡¡the¡¡creation¡¡of¡¡an¡¡intellectual¡¡aristocracy£»¡¡a

result¡¡the¡¡contrary¡¡of¡¡the¡¡dream¡¡of¡¡the¡¡pure¡¡theorists£»¡¡to¡¡beat

down¡¡the¡¡superior¡¡elements¡¡of¡¡society¡¡to¡¡the¡¡level¡¡of¡¡the

inferior¡¡elements¡£



On¡¡the¡¡side¡¡of¡¡natural¡¡law£»¡¡which¡¡is¡¡hostile¡¡to¡¡theories¡¡of

equality£»¡¡are¡¡the¡¡conditions¡¡of¡¡modern¡¡progress¡£¡¡¡¡Science¡¡and

industry¡¡demand¡¡more¡¡and¡¡more¡¡considerable¡¡intellectual

efforts£»¡¡so¡¡that¡¡mental¡¡inequalities¡¡and¡¡the¡¡differences¡¡of

social¡¡condition¡¡which¡¡spring¡¡from¡¡them¡¡cannot¡¡but¡¡become

accentuated¡£



We¡¡therefore¡¡observe¡¡this¡¡striking¡¡phenomenon£º¡¡as¡¡laws¡¡and

institutions¡¡seek¡¡to¡¡level¡¡individuals¡¡the¡¡progress¡¡of

civilisation¡¡tends¡¡still¡¡further¡¡to¡¡differentiate¡¡them¡£¡¡¡¡From¡¡the

peasant¡¡to¡¡the¡¡feudal¡¡baron¡¡the¡¡intellectual¡¡difference¡¡was¡¡not

great£»¡¡but¡¡from¡¡the¡¡working¡­man¡¡to¡¡the¡¡engineer¡¡it¡¡is¡¡immense¡¡and

is¡¡increasing¡¡daily¡£



Capacity¡¡being¡¡the¡¡principal¡¡factor¡¡of¡¡progress£»¡¡the¡¡capable¡¡of

each¡¡class¡¡rise¡¡while¡¡the¡¡mediocre¡¡remain¡¡stationary¡¡or¡¡sink¡£¡¡

What¡¡could¡¡laws¡¡do¡¡in¡¡the¡¡face¡¡of¡¡such¡¡inevitable¡¡necessities£¿



In¡¡vain¡¡do¡¡the¡¡incapable¡¡pretend¡¡that£»¡¡representing¡¡number£»¡¡they

also¡¡represent¡¡force¡£¡¡¡¡Deprived¡¡of¡¡the¡¡superior¡¡brains¡¡by¡¡whose

researches¡¡all¡¡workers¡¡profit£»¡¡they¡¡would¡¡speedily¡¡sink¡¡into

poverty¡¡and¡¡anarchy¡£



The¡¡capital¡¡role¡¡of¡¡the¡¡elect¡¡in¡¡modern¡¡civilisation¡¡seems

too¡¡obvious¡¡to¡¡need¡¡pointing¡¡out¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡the¡¡case¡¡of¡¡civilised

nations¡¡and¡¡barbarian¡¡peoples£»¡¡which¡¡contain¡¡similar¡¡averages¡¡of

mediocrities£»¡¡the¡¡superiority¡¡of¡¡the¡¡former¡¡arises¡¡solely¡¡from

the¡¡superior¡¡minds¡¡which¡¡they¡¡contain¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡United¡¡States¡¡have

understood¡¡this¡¡so¡¡thoroughly¡¡that¡¡they¡¡forbid¡¡the¡¡immigration¡¡of

Chinese¡¡workers£»¡¡whose¡¡capacity¡¡is¡¡identical¡¡with¡¡that¡¡of

American¡¡workers£»¡¡and¡¡who£»¡¡working¡¡for¡¡lower¡¡wages£»¡¡tend¡¡to

create¡¡a¡¡formidable¡¡competition¡¡with¡¡the¡¡latter¡£¡¡¡¡Despite¡¡these

evidences¡¡we¡¡see¡¡the¡¡antagonism¡¡between¡¡the¡¡multitude¡¡and¡¡the

elect¡¡increasing¡¡day¡¡by¡¡day¡£¡¡¡¡At¡¡no¡¡period¡¡were¡¡the¡¡elect¡¡more

necessary£»¡¡yet¡¡never¡¡were¡¡they¡¡supported¡¡with¡¡such¡¡difficulty¡£



One¡¡of¡¡the¡¡most¡¡solid¡¡foundations¡¡of¡¡Socialism¡¡is¡¡an¡¡intense

hatred¡¡of¡¡the¡¡elect¡£¡¡¡¡Its¡¡adepts¡¡always¡¡forget¡¡that¡¡scientific£»

artistic£»¡¡and¡¡industrial¡¡progress£»¡¡which¡¡creates¡¡the¡¡strength¡¡of

a¡¡country¡¡and¡¡the¡¡prosperity¡¡of¡¡millions¡¡of¡¡workers£»¡¡is¡¡due

solely¡¡to¡¡a¡¡small¡¡number¡¡of¡¡superior¡¡brains¡£



If¡¡the¡¡worker¡¡makes¡¡three¡¡times¡¡as¡¡much¡¡to¡­day¡¡as¡¡he¡¡did¡¡a

hundred¡¡years¡¡ago£»¡¡and¡¡enjoys¡¡commodities¡¡then¡¡unknown¡¡to¡¡great

nobles£»¡¡he¡¡owes¡¡it¡¡entirely¡¡to¡¡the¡¡elect¡£



Suppose¡¡that¡¡by¡¡some¡¡miracle¡¡Socialism¡¡had¡¡been¡¡universally

accepted¡¡a¡¡century¡¡ago¡£¡¡¡¡Risk£»¡¡speculation£»¡¡initiativein¡¡a

word£»¡¡all¡¡the¡¡stimulants¡¡of¡¡human¡¡activitybeing¡¡suppressed£»¡¡no

progress¡¡would¡¡have¡¡been¡¡possible£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡worker¡¡would¡¡have

remained¡¡as¡¡poor¡¡as¡¡he¡¡was¡£¡¡¡¡Men¡¡would¡¡merely¡¡have¡¡established

that¡¡equality¡¡in¡¡poverty¡¡desired¡¡by¡¡the¡¡jealousy¡¡and¡¡envy¡¡of¡¡a

host¡¡of¡¡mediocre¡¡minds¡£¡¡¡¡Humanity¡¡will¡¡never¡¡renounce¡¡the

progress¡¡of¡¡civilisation¡¡to¡¡satisfy¡¡so¡¡low¡¡an¡¡ideal¡£







CHAPTER¡¡II



THE¡¡RESULTS¡¡OF¡¡DEMOCRATIC¡¡EVOLUTION



1¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Influence¡¡upon¡¡Social¡¡Evolution¡¡of¡¡Theories¡¡of¡¡no

Rational¡¡Value¡£



We¡¡have¡¡seen¡¡that¡¡natural¡¡laws¡¡do¡¡not¡¡agree¡¡with¡¡the¡¡aspirations

of¡¡democracy¡£¡¡¡¡We¡¡know£»¡¡also£»¡¡that¡¡such¡¡a¡¡statement¡¡has¡¡never

affected¡¡doctrines¡¡already¡¡in¡¡men's¡¡minds¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡man¡¡led¡¡by¡¡a

belief¡¡never¡¡troubles¡¡about¡¡its¡¡real¡¡value¡£



The¡¡philosopher¡¡who¡¡studies¡¡a¡¡belief¡¡must¡¡obviously¡¡discuss¡¡its

rational¡¡content£»¡¡but¡¡he¡¡is¡¡more¡¡concerned¡¡with¡¡its¡¡influences

upon¡¡the¡¡general¡¡mind¡£



Applied¡¡to¡¡the¡¡interpretation¡¡of¡¡all¡¡the¡¡great¡¡beliefs¡¡of

history£»¡¡the¡¡importance¡¡of¡¡this¡¡distinction¡¡is¡¡at¡¡once¡¡evident¡£¡¡

Jupiter£»¡¡Moloch£»¡¡Vishnu£»¡¡Allah£»¡¡and¡¡so¡¡many¡¡other¡¡divinities£»

were£»¡¡no¡¡doubt£»¡¡from¡¡the¡¡rational¡¡point¡¡of¡¡view£»¡¡mere¡¡illusions£»

yet¡¡their¡¡effect¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡life¡¡of¡¡the¡¡peoples¡¡has¡¡been

considerable¡£



The¡¡same¡¡distinction¡¡is¡¡applicable¡¡to¡¡the¡¡beliefs¡¡which¡¡prevailed

during¡¡the¡¡Middle¡¡Ages¡£¡¡¡¡Equally¡¡illusory£»¡¡they¡¡nevertheless

exercised¡¡as¡¡profound¡¡an¡¡influence¡¡as¡¡if¡¡they¡¡had¡¡corresponded

with¡¡realities¡£



If¡¡any¡¡one¡¡doubts¡¡this£»¡¡let¡¡him¡¡compare¡¡the¡¡domination¡¡of¡¡the

Roman¡¡Empire¡¡and¡¡that¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Church¡¡of¡¡Rome¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡first¡¡was

perfectly¡¡real¡¡and¡¡tangible£»¡¡and¡¡implied¡¡no¡¡illusion¡£¡¡¡¡The

second£»¡¡while¡¡its¡¡foundations¡¡were¡¡entirely¡¡chimerical£»¡¡was¡¡fully

as¡¡powerful¡£¡¡¡¡Thanks¡¡to¡¡it£»¡¡during¡¡the¡¡long¡¡night¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Middle

Ages£»¡¡semi¡­barbarous¡¡peoples¡¡acquired¡¡those¡¡social¡¡bonds¡¡and

restraints¡¡and¡¡that¡¡national¡¡soul¡¡without¡¡which¡¡there¡¡is¡¡no

civilisation¡£



The¡¡power¡¡possessed¡¡by¡¡the¡¡Church¡¡proves£»¡¡again£»¡¡that¡¡the¡¡power

of¡¡certain¡¡illusions¡¡is¡¡sufficiently¡¡great¡¡to¡¡create£»¡¡at¡¡least

momentarily£»¡¡sentiments¡¡as¡¡contrary¡¡to¡¡the¡¡interests¡¡of¡¡the

individual¡¡as¡¡they¡¡are¡¡to¡¡that¡¡of¡¡societysuch¡¡as¡¡the¡¡love¡¡of

the¡¡monastic¡¡life£»¡¡the¡¡desire¡¡for¡¡martyrdom£»¡¡the¡¡crusades£»¡¡the

religious¡¡wars£»¡¡&c¡£



The¡¡application¡¡to¡¡democratic¡¡and¡¡socialistic¡¡ideas¡¡of¡¡the

preceding¡¡considerations¡¡shows¡¡that¡¡it¡¡matters¡¡little¡¡that¡¡these

ideas¡¡have¡¡no¡¡defensible¡¡basis¡£¡¡¡¡They¡¡impress¡¡and¡¡influence¡¡men's

minds£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡is¡¡sufficient¡£¡¡¡¡Their¡¡results¡¡may¡¡be¡¡disastrous

in¡¡the¡¡extreme£»¡¡but¡¡we¡¡cannot¡¡prevent¡¡them¡£



The¡¡apostles¡¡of¡¡the¡¡new¡¡doctrines¡¡are¡¡quite¡¡wrong¡¡in¡¡taking¡¡so

much¡¡trouble¡¡to¡¡find¡¡a¡¡rational¡¡basis¡¡for¡¡their¡¡aspirations¡£¡¡

They¡¡would¡¡be¡¡far¡¡more¡¡convincing¡¡were¡¡they¡¡to¡¡confine¡¡themselves

to¡¡making¡¡affirmations¡¡and¡¡awakening¡¡hopes¡£¡¡¡¡Their¡¡real¡¡strength

resides¡¡in¡¡the¡¡religious¡¡mentality¡¡which¡¡is¡¡inherent¡¡in¡¡the¡¡heart

of¡¡man£»¡¡and¡¡which¡¡during¡¡the¡¡ages¡¡has¡¡only¡¡changed¡¡its¡¡object¡£



Later¡¡on¡¡we¡¡shall¡¡consider¡¡from¡¡a¡¡philosophical¡¡point¡¡of¡¡view

various¡¡consequences¡¡of¡¡the¡¡democratic¡¡evolution¡¡whose¡¡course¡¡we

see¡¡accelerating¡£¡¡¡¡We¡¡may¡¡say¡¡in¡¡respect¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Church¡¡in¡¡the

Middle¡¡Ages¡¡that¡¡it¡¡had¡¡the¡¡power¡¡of¡¡profoundly¡¡influencing¡¡the

mentality¡¡of¡¡men¡£¡¡¡¡Examining¡¡certain¡¡results¡¡of¡¡the

democratic¡¡doctrines£»¡¡we¡¡shall¡¡see¡¡that¡¡the¡¡power¡¡of¡¡these¡¡is¡¡no

less¡¡than¡¡that¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Church¡£





2¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Jacobin¡¡Spirit¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Mentality¡¡created¡¡by¡¡Democratic

Beliefs¡£





Existing¡¡generations¡¡have¡¡inherited£»¡¡not¡¡only¡¡the¡¡revolutionary

principles¡¡but¡¡also¡¡the¡¡special¡¡

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