the psychology of revolution-第45章

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power。　　This　development；　of　which　I　shall　briefly　denote　the

effects；　is　effected　spontaneously　under　the　stress　of　those

imperious　necessities　which　are　still　the　chief　controlling　power

of　events。



The　Governments　of　democratic　countries　to…day　consist　of　the

representatives　elected　by　universal　suffrage。　　They　vote　laws；

and　appoint　and　dismiss　ministers　chosen　from　themselves；　and

provisionally　entrusted　with　the　executive　power。　　These

ministers　are　naturally　often　replaced；　since　a　vote　will　do

it。　　Those　who　follow　them；　belonging　to　a　different

party；　will　govern　according　to　different　principles。



It　might　at　first　seem　that　a　country　thus　pulled　to　and　fro　by

various　influences　could　have　no　continuity　or　stability。　　But　in

spite　of　all　these　conditions　of　instability　a　democratic

Government　like　that　of　France　works　with　fair　regularity。　　How

explain　such　a　phenomenon？



Its　interpretation；　which　is　very　simple；　results　from　the　fact

that　the　ministers　who　have　the　appearance　of　governing　really

govern　the　country　only　to　a　very　limited　extent。　　Strictly

limited　and　circumscribed；　their　power　is　exercised　principally

in　speeches　which　are　hardly　noticed　and　in　a　few　inorganic

measures。



But　behind　the　superficial　authority　of　ministers；　without　force

or　duration；　the　playthings　of　every　demand　of　the　politician；　an

anonymous　power　is　secretly　at　work　whose　might　is　continually

increasing　the　administrations。　　Possessing　traditions；　a

hierarchy；　and　continuity；　they　are　a　power　against　which；　as　the

ministers　quickly　realise；　they　are　incapable　of　struggling。＇14＇　

Responsibility　is　so　divided　in　the　administrative　machine　that　a

minister　may　never　find　himself　opposed　by　any　person　of

importance。　　His　momentary　impulses　are　checked　by　a　network　of

regulations；　customs；　and　decrees；　which　are　continually　quoted

to　him；　and　which　he　knows　so　little　that　he　dare　not　infringe

them。







＇14＇　The　impotence　of　ministers　in　their　own　departments　has　been

well　described　by　one　of　them；　M。　Cruppi；　in　a　recent　book。　　The

most　ardent　wishes　of　the　minister　being　immediately　paralysed　by

his　department；　he　promptly　ceases　to　struggle　against　it。









This　diminution　of　the　power　of　democratic　Governments　can

only　develop。　　One　of　the　most　constant　laws　of　history　is　that

of　which　I　have　already　spoken：　　Immediately　any　one　class

becomes　preponderantnobles；　clergy；　army；　or　the　peopleit

speedily　tends　to　enslave　others。　　Such　were　the　Roman　armies；

which　finally　appointed　and　overthrew　the　emperors；　such　were　the

clergy；　against　whom　the　kings　of　old　could　hardly　struggle；　such

were　the　States　General；　which　at　the　moment　of　Revolution

speedily　absorbed　all　the　powers　of　government；　and　supplanted

the　monarchy。



The　caste　of　functionaries　is　destined　to　furnish　a　fresh　proof

of　the　truth　of　this　law。　　Preponderant　already；　they　are

beginning　to　speak　loudly；　to　make　threats；　and　even　to　indulge

in　strikes；　such　as　that　of　the　postmen；　which　was　quickly

followed　by　that　of　the　Government　railway　employees。　　The

administrative　power　thus　forms　a　little　State　within　the　State；

and　if　its　present　rate　of　revolution　continues　it　will　soon

constitute　the　only　power　in　the　State。　　Under　a　Socialist

Government　there　would　be　no　other　power。　　All　our　revolutions

would　then　have　resulted　in　stripping　the　king　of　his　powers　and

his　throne　in　order　to　bestow　them　upon　the　irresponsible；

anonymous　and　despotic　class　of　Government　clerks。



To　foresee　the　issue　of　all　the　conflicts　which　threaten　to　cloud

the　future　is　impossible。　　We　must　steer　clear　of　pessimism　as　of

optimism；　all　we　can　say　is　that　necessity　will　always　finally

bring　things　to　an　equilibrium。　　The　world　pursues　its　way

without　bothering　itself　with　our　speeches；　and　sooner　or　later

we　manage　to　adapt　ourselves　to　the　variations　of　our

environment。　　The　difficulty　is　to　do　so　without　too　much

friction；　and　above　all　to　resist　the　chimerical　conceptions　of

dreamers。　　Always　powerless　to　re…organise　the　world；　they　have

often　contrived　to　upset　it。



Athens；　Rome；　Florence；　and　many　other　cities　which　formerly

shone　in　history；　were　victims　of　these　terrible　theorists。　　The

results　of　their　influence　has　always　been　the　sameanarchy；

dictatorship；　and　decadence。



But　such　lessons　will　not　affect　the　numerous　Catilines　of　the

present　day。　　They　do　not　yet　see　that　the　movements　unchained　by

their　ambitions　threaten　to　submerge　them。　　All　these　Utopians

have　awakened　impossible　hopes　in　the　mind　of　the　crowd；　excited

their　appetites；　and　sapped　the　dykes　which　have　been　slowly

erected　during　the　centuries　to　restrain　them。



The　struggle　of　the　blind　multitudes　against　the　elect　is　one　of

the　continuous　facts　of　history；　and　the　triumph　of　popular

sovereignties　without　counterpoise　has　already　marked　the　end　of

more　than　one　civilisation。　　The　elect　create；　the　plebs

destroys。　　As　soon　as　the　first　lose　their　hold　the　latter　begins

its　precious　work。



The　great　civilisations　have　only　prospered　by　dominating　their

lower　elements。　　It　is　not　only　in　Greece　that　anarchy；

dictatorship；　invasion；　and；　finally；　the　loss　of　independence

has　resulted　from　the　despotism　of　a　democracy。　　Individual

tyranny　is　always　born　of　collective　tyranny。　　It　ended　the　first

cycle　of　the　greatness　of　Rome；　the　Barbarians　achieved　the

second。







CONCLUSIONS



The　principal　revolutions　of　history　have　been　studied　in　this

volume。　　But　we　have　dealt　more　especially　with　the　most

important　of　allthat　which　for　more　than　twenty　years

overwhelmed　all　Europe；　and　whose　echoes　are　still　to　be　heard。



The　French　Revolution　is　an　inexhaustible　mine　of　psychological

documents。　　No　period　of　the　life　of　humanity　has　presented　such

a　mass　of　experience；　accumulated　in　so　short　a　time。



On　each　page　of　this　great　drama　we　have　found　numerous

applications　of　the　principles　expounded　in　my　various　works；

concerning　the　transitory　mentality　of　crowds　and　the　permanent

soul　of　the　peoples；　the　action　of　beliefs；　the　influence　of

mystic；　affective；　and　collective　elements；　and　the　conflict

between　the　various　forms　of　logic。



The　Revolutionary　Assemblies　illustrate　all　the　known　laws　of　the

psychology　of　crowds。　　Impulsive　and　timid；　they　are　dominated　by

a　small　number　of　leaders；　and　usually　act　in　a　sense　contrary　to

the　wishes　of　their　individual　members。



The　Royalist　Constituent　Assembly　destroyed　an　ancient　monarchy；

the　humanitarian　Legislative　Assembly　allowed　the　massacres　of

September。　　The　same　pacific　body　led　France　into　the　most

formidable　campaigns。



There　were　similar　contradictions　during　the　Convention。　　The

immense　majority　of　its　members　abhorred　violence。　　Sentimental

philosophers；　they　exalted　equality；　fraternity；　and　liberty；　yet

ended　by　exerting　the　most　terrible　despotism。



The　same　contradictions　were　visible　during　the　Directory。　

Extremely　moderate　in　their　intentions　at　the　outset；　the

Assemblies　were　continually　effecting　bloodthirsty　coups

d'etat。　　They　wished　to　re…establish　religious　peace；　and

finally　sent　thousands　of　priests　into　imprisonment。　　They　wished

to　repair　the　ruins　which　covered　France；　and　only　succeeded　in

adding　to　them。



Thus　there　was　always　a　complete　contradiction　between　the

individual　wills　of　the　men　of　the　revolutionary　period　and　the

deeds　of　the　Assemblies　of　which　they　were　units。



The　truth　is　that　they　obeyed　invisible　forces　of　which　they　were

not　the　masters。　　Believing　that　they　acted　in　the　name　of　pure

reason；　they　were　really　subject　to　mystic；　affective；　and

collective　influences；　incomprehensible　to　them；　and　which　we　are

only　to…day　beginning　to　understand。





Intelligence　has　progressed　in　the　course　of　the　ages；　and　has

opened　a　marvellous　outlook　to　man；　although　his　character；　the

real　foundation　of　his　mind；　and　the　sure　motive　of　his　actions；

has　scarcely　changed。　　Overthrown　one　moment；　it　reappears　the

next。　　Human　nature　must　be　accepted　as　it　is。



The　founders　of　the　Revolution　did　not　resign　themselves　to　the

facts　of　human　nature。　　For　the　first　time　in　the　history

of　humanity　they　attempted　to　transform　men　and　society　in　the

name　of　reason。



Never　was　any　undertaking　commenced　with　such　chances　of　success。　

The　theorists；　who　claimed　to　effect　it；　had　a　power　in　their

hands　greater　than　that　of　any　despot。



Yet；　despite　this　power；　despite　the　success　of　the　armies；

despite　Draconian　laws　and　repeated　coups　d'etat；　the

Revolution　merely　heaped　ruin　upon　ruin；　and　ended　in　a

dictatorship。



Such　an　attempt　was　not　useless；　since　experience　is　necessary　to

the　education　of　the　peoples。　　Without　the　Revolution　it　would

have　been　difficult　to　prove　that　pure　reason　does　not　enable　us

to　change　human　nature；　and；　consequently；　that　no　society　can　be

rebuilt　by　the　will　of　legislators；　however　absolute　their　power。





Commenced　by　the　middle　classes　for　their　own　profit；　the

Revolution　speedily　became　a　popular　movement；　and　at　the　same

time　a　struggle　of　the　instinctive　against　the　rational；　a　revolt

against　all　the　constraints　which　make　civilisation　out　of

barbarism。　　It　was　by　relying　on　the　principle　of　popular

sovereignty　that　the　reformers　attempted　to　impose　their

doctrines。　　Guided　by　leaders；　the　people　intervened　incessantly

in　the　deliberations　of　the　Assemblies；　and　committed　the　most

sanguinary　acts　of　violence。



The　history　of　the　multitudes　during　the　Revolution　is　eminently

instructive。　　It　shows　the　error　of　the　politicians　who　attribute

all　the　virtues　to　the　popular　soul。



The　facts　of　the　Revolution　teach　us；　on　the　contrary；　that　a

people　freed　from　social　constraints；　the　foundations　of

civilisation；　and　abandoned　to　its　instinctive　impulses；　speedily

relapses　into　its　ancestral　savagery。　　Every　popular　revolution

which　succeeds　in　triumphing　is　a　temporary　return　to　barbarism。　

If　the　Commune　of　1871　had　lasted；　it　would　have　repeated　the

Terror。　　Not　having　the　power　to　kill　so　many　people；　it　had　to

confine　itself　to　burning　the　principal　monuments　of　the　capital。



The　Revolution　represents　the　conflict　of　psychological　forces

liberated　from　the　bonds　whose　function　it　is　to　restrain　them。　

Popular　instincts；　Jacobin　beliefs；　ancestral　influences；

appetites；　and　passions　unloosed；　all　these　various　influences

engaged　in　a　furious　mutual　conflict　for　the　space　of　ten　years；

during　which　time　they　soaked　France　in　blood　and　covered　the

land　with　ruins。



Seen　from　a　distance；　this　seems　to　be　the　whole　upshot　of　the

Revolution。　　There　was　nothing　homogeneous　about　it。　　One　must

resort　to　analysis　before　one　can　understand　and　grasp　the　great

drama　and　display　the　impulses　whic