the psychology of revolution-µÚ5ÕÂ
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Luther¡¡having¡¡taught¡¡that¡¡the¡¡clergy¡¡had¡¡no¡¡need¡¡of¡¡wealth£»¡¡the
German¡¡lords¡¡found¡¡many¡¡merits¡¡in¡¡a¡¡faith¡¡which¡¡enabled¡¡them¡¡to
seize¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡goods¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Church¡£¡¡¡¡Henry¡¡VIII¡£¡¡enriched
himself¡¡by¡¡a¡¡similar¡¡operation¡£¡¡¡¡Sovereigns¡¡who¡¡were¡¡often
molested¡¡by¡¡the¡¡Pope¡¡could¡¡as¡¡a¡¡rule¡¡only¡¡look¡¡favourably¡¡upon¡¡a
doctrine¡¡which¡¡added¡¡religious¡¡powers¡¡to¡¡their¡¡political¡¡powers
and¡¡made¡¡each¡¡of¡¡them¡¡a¡¡Pope¡£¡¡¡¡Far¡¡from¡¡diminishing¡¡the
absolutism¡¡of¡¡rulers£»¡¡the¡¡Reformation¡¡only¡¡exaggerated¡¡it¡£
3¡£¡¡¡¡Rational¡¡value¡¡of¡¡the¡¡doctrines¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Reformation¡£
The¡¡Reformation¡¡overturned¡¡all¡¡Europe£»¡¡and¡¡came¡¡near¡¡to¡¡ruining
France£»¡¡of¡¡which¡¡it¡¡made¡¡a¡¡battle¡field¡¡for¡¡a¡¡period¡¡of¡¡fifty
years¡£¡¡¡¡Never¡¡did¡¡a¡¡cause¡¡so¡¡insignificant¡¡from¡¡the¡¡rational
point¡¡of¡¡view¡¡produce¡¡such¡¡great¡¡results¡£
Here¡¡is¡¡one¡¡of¡¡the¡¡innumerable¡¡proofs¡¡of¡¡the¡¡fact¡¡that¡¡beliefs
are¡¡propagated¡¡independently¡¡of¡¡all¡¡reason¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡theological
doctrines¡¡which¡¡aroused¡¡men's¡¡passions¡¡so¡¡violently£»¡¡and¡¡notably
those¡¡of¡¡Calvin£»¡¡are¡¡not¡¡even¡¡worthy¡¡of¡¡examination¡¡in¡¡the¡¡light
of¡¡rational¡¡logic¡£
Greatly¡¡concerned¡¡about¡¡his¡¡salvation£»¡¡having¡¡an¡¡excessive¡¡fear
of¡¡the¡¡devil£»¡¡which¡¡his¡¡confessor¡¡was¡¡unable¡¡to¡¡allay£»¡¡Luther
sought¡¡the¡¡surest¡¡means¡¡of¡¡pleasing¡¡God¡¡that¡¡he¡¡might¡¡avoid¡¡Hell¡£
Having¡¡commenced¡¡by¡¡denying¡¡the¡¡Pope¡¡the¡¡right¡¡to¡¡sell
indulgences£»¡¡he¡¡presently¡¡entirely¡¡denied¡¡his¡¡authority£»¡¡and¡¡that
of¡¡the¡¡Church£»¡¡condemned¡¡religious¡¡ceremonies£»¡¡confession£»¡¡and
the¡¡worship¡¡of¡¡the¡¡saints£»¡¡and¡¡declared¡¡that¡¡Christians¡¡should
have¡¡no¡¡rules¡¡of¡¡conduct¡¡other¡¡than¡¡the¡¡Bible¡£¡¡¡¡He¡¡also
considered¡¡that¡¡no¡¡one¡¡could¡¡be¡¡saved¡¡without¡¡the¡¡grace¡¡of¡¡God¡£
This¡¡last¡¡theory£»¡¡known¡¡as¡¡that¡¡of¡¡predestination£»¡¡was¡¡in¡¡Luther
rather¡¡uncertain£»¡¡but¡¡was¡¡stated¡¡precisely¡¡by¡¡Calvin£»¡¡who¡¡made¡¡it
the¡¡very¡¡foundation¡¡of¡¡a¡¡doctrine¡¡to¡¡which¡¡the¡¡majority¡¡of
Protestants¡¡are¡¡still¡¡subservient¡£¡¡¡¡According¡¡to¡¡him£º¡¡¡®¡®From
all¡¡eternity¡¡God¡¡has¡¡predestined¡¡certain¡¡men¡¡to¡¡be¡¡burned¡¡and
others¡¡to¡¡be¡¡saved¡£''¡¡¡¡Why¡¡this¡¡monstrous¡¡iniquity£¿¡¡¡¡Simply
because¡¡¡®¡®it¡¡is¡¡the¡¡will¡¡of¡¡God¡£''
Thus¡¡according¡¡to¡¡Calvin£»¡¡who¡¡for¡¡that¡¡matter¡¡merely¡¡developed
certain¡¡assertions¡¡of¡¡St¡£¡¡Augustine£»¡¡an¡¡all¡powerful¡¡God¡¡would
amuse¡¡Himself¡¡by¡¡creating¡¡living¡¡beings¡¡simply¡¡in¡¡order¡¡to¡¡burn
them¡¡during¡¡all¡¡eternity£»¡¡without¡¡paying¡¡any¡¡heed¡¡to¡¡their¡¡acts
or¡¡merits¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡is¡¡marvellous¡¡that¡¡such¡¡revolting¡¡insanity¡¡could
for¡¡such¡¡a¡¡length¡¡of¡¡time¡¡subjugate¡¡so¡¡many¡¡mindsmarvellous
that¡¡it¡¡does¡¡so¡¡still¡££§1£§
£§1£§¡¡The¡¡doctrine¡¡of¡¡predestination¡¡is¡¡still¡¡taught¡¡in¡¡Protestant
catechisms£»¡¡as¡¡is¡¡proved¡¡by¡¡the¡¡following¡¡passage¡¡extracted¡¡from
the¡¡last¡¡edition¡¡of¡¡an¡¡official¡¡catechism¡¡for¡¡which¡¡I¡¡sent¡¡to
Edinburgh£º
¡®¡®By¡¡the¡¡decree¡¡of¡¡God£»¡¡for¡¡the¡¡manifestation¡¡of¡¡His¡¡glory£»¡¡some
men¡¡and¡¡angels¡¡are¡¡predestinated¡¡unto¡¡everlasting¡¡life£»¡¡and
others¡¡foreordained¡¡to¡¡everlasting¡¡death¡£
¡®¡®These¡¡angels¡¡and¡¡men£»¡¡thus¡¡predestinated¡¡and¡¡foreordained£»¡¡are
particularly¡¡and¡¡unchangeably¡¡designed£»¡¡and¡¡their¡¡number¡¡is¡¡so
certain¡¡and¡¡definite¡¡that¡¡it¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡either¡¡increased¡¡or
diminished¡£
¡®¡®Those¡¡of¡¡mankind¡¡that¡¡are¡¡predestinated¡¡unto¡¡life£»¡¡God£»¡¡before
the¡¡foundation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡world¡¡was¡¡laid£»¡¡according¡¡to¡¡His¡¡eternal
and¡¡immutable¡¡purpose£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡secret¡¡counsel¡¡and¡¡good¡¡pleasure
of¡¡His¡¡will£»¡¡hath¡¡chosen¡¡in¡¡Christ¡¡unto¡¡everlasting¡¡glory£»¡¡out¡¡of
His¡¡mere¡¡free¡¡grace¡¡and¡¡love£»¡¡without¡¡any¡¡foresight¡¡of¡¡faith¡¡or
good¡¡works£»¡¡or¡¡perseverance¡¡in¡¡either¡¡of¡¡them£»¡¡or¡¡any¡¡other¡¡thing
in¡¡the¡¡creature£»¡¡as¡¡conditions£»¡¡or¡¡causes¡¡moving¡¡him¡¡thereunto£»
and¡¡all¡¡to¡¡the¡¡praise¡¡of¡¡his¡¡glorious¡¡grace¡£
¡®¡®As¡¡God¡¡hath¡¡appointed¡¡the¡¡elect¡¡unto¡¡glory£»¡¡so¡¡hath¡¡He£»¡¡by¡¡the
eternal¡¡and¡¡most¡¡free¡¡purpose¡¡of¡¡His¡¡will£»¡¡foreordained¡¡all¡¡the
means¡¡thereunto¡£¡¡¡¡Wherefore¡¡they¡¡who¡¡are¡¡elected¡¡being¡¡fallen¡¡in
Adam£»¡¡are¡¡redeemed¡¡by¡¡Christ£»¡¡are¡¡effectually¡¡called¡¡unto¡¡faith
in¡¡Christ¡¡by¡¡His¡¡spirit¡¡working¡¡in¡¡due¡¡season£»¡¡are¡¡justified£»
adopted£»¡¡sanctified£»¡¡and¡¡kept¡¡by¡¡His¡¡power¡¡through¡¡faith¡¡unto
salvation¡£¡¡¡¡Neither¡¡are¡¡any¡¡other¡¡redeemed¡¡by¡¡Christ£»¡¡effectually
called£»¡¡justified£»¡¡adopted£»¡¡sanctified£»¡¡and¡¡saved£»¡¡but¡¡the¡¡elect
only¡£''
The¡¡psychology¡¡of¡¡Calvin¡¡is¡¡not¡¡without¡¡affinity¡¡with¡¡that¡¡of
Robespierre¡£¡¡¡¡Like¡¡the¡¡latter£»¡¡the¡¡master¡¡of¡¡the¡¡pure¡¡truth£»¡¡he
sent¡¡to¡¡death¡¡those¡¡who¡¡would¡¡not¡¡accept¡¡his¡¡doctrines¡£¡¡¡¡God£»¡¡he
stated£»¡¡wishes¡¡¡®¡®that¡¡one¡¡should¡¡put¡¡aside¡¡all¡¡humanity¡¡when¡¡it
is¡¡a¡¡question¡¡of¡¡striving¡¡for¡¡his¡¡glory¡£''
The¡¡case¡¡of¡¡Calvin¡¡and¡¡his¡¡disciples¡¡shows¡¡that¡¡matters¡¡which
rationally¡¡are¡¡the¡¡most¡¡contradictory¡¡become¡¡perfectly¡¡reconciled
in¡¡minds¡¡which¡¡are¡¡hypnotised¡¡by¡¡a¡¡belief¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡the¡¡eyes¡¡of
rational¡¡logic£»¡¡it¡¡seems¡¡impossible¡¡to¡¡base¡¡a¡¡morality¡¡upon¡¡the
theory¡¡of¡¡predestination£»¡¡since¡¡whatever¡¡they¡¡do¡¡men¡¡are¡¡sure¡¡of
being¡¡either¡¡saved¡¡or¡¡damned¡£¡¡¡¡However£»¡¡Calvin¡¡had¡¡no¡¡difficulty
in¡¡erecting¡¡a¡¡most¡¡severe¡¡morality¡¡upon¡¡this¡¡totally¡¡illogical
basis¡£¡¡¡¡Considering¡¡themselves¡¡the¡¡elect¡¡of¡¡God£»¡¡his¡¡disciples
were¡¡so¡¡swollen¡¡by¡¡pride¡¡and¡¡the¡¡sense¡¡of¡¡their¡¡own¡¡dignity¡¡that
they¡¡felt¡¡obliged¡¡to¡¡serve¡¡as¡¡models¡¡in¡¡their¡¡conduct¡£
4¡£¡¡¡¡Propagation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Reformation¡£
The¡¡new¡¡faith¡¡was¡¡propagated¡¡not¡¡by¡¡speech£»¡¡still¡¡less¡¡by¡¡process
of¡¡reasoning£»¡¡but¡¡by¡¡the¡¡mechanism¡¡described¡¡in¡¡our¡¡preceding
work£º¡¡that¡¡is£»¡¡by¡¡the¡¡influence¡¡of¡¡affirmation£»¡¡repetition£»
mental¡¡contagion£»¡¡and¡¡prestige¡£¡¡¡¡At¡¡a¡¡much¡¡later¡¡date
revolutionary¡¡ideas¡¡were¡¡spread¡¡over¡¡France¡¡in¡¡the¡¡same¡¡fashion¡£
Persecution£»¡¡as¡¡we¡¡have¡¡already¡¡remarked£»¡¡only¡¡favoured¡¡this
propagation¡£¡¡¡¡Each¡¡execution¡¡led¡¡to¡¡fresh¡¡conversions£»¡¡as¡¡was
seen¡¡in¡¡the¡¡early¡¡years¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Christian¡¡Church¡£¡¡¡¡Anne¡¡Dubourg£»
Parliamentary¡¡councillor£»¡¡condemned¡¡to¡¡be¡¡burned¡¡alive£»¡¡marched
to¡¡the¡¡stake¡¡exhorting¡¡the¡¡crowd¡¡to¡¡be¡¡converted¡£¡¡¡¡¡®¡®His¡¡
constancy£»''¡¡says¡¡a¡¡witness£»¡¡¡®¡®made¡¡more¡¡Protestants¡¡among¡¡the
young¡¡men¡¡of¡¡the¡¡colleges¡¡than¡¡the¡¡books¡¡of¡¡Calvin¡£''
To¡¡prevent¡¡the¡¡condemned¡¡from¡¡speaking¡¡to¡¡the¡¡people¡¡their
tongues¡¡were¡¡cut¡¡out¡¡before¡¡they¡¡were¡¡burned¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡horror¡¡of
their¡¡sufferings¡¡was¡¡increased¡¡by¡¡attaching¡¡the¡¡victims¡¡to¡¡an
iron¡¡chain£»¡¡which¡¡enabled¡¡the¡¡executioners¡¡to¡¡plunge¡¡them¡¡into
the¡¡fire¡¡and¡¡withdraw¡¡them¡¡several¡¡times¡¡in¡¡succession¡£
But¡¡nothing¡¡induced¡¡the¡¡Protestants¡¡to¡¡retract£»¡¡even¡¡the¡¡offer¡¡of
an¡¡amnesty¡¡after¡¡they¡¡had¡¡felt¡¡the¡¡fire¡£
In¡¡1535¡¡Francis¡¡I¡££»¡¡forsaking¡¡his¡¡previous¡¡tolerance£»¡¡ordered¡¡six
fires¡¡to¡¡be¡¡lighted¡¡simultaneously¡¡in¡¡Paris¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Convention£»¡¡as
we¡¡know£»¡¡limited¡¡itself¡¡to¡¡a¡¡single¡¡guillotine¡¡in¡¡the¡¡same¡¡city¡£¡¡
It¡¡is¡¡probable¡¡that¡¡the¡¡sufferings¡¡of¡¡the¡¡victims¡¡were¡¡not¡¡very
excruciating£»¡¡the¡¡insensibility¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Christian¡¡martyrs¡¡had
already¡¡been¡¡remarked¡£¡¡¡¡Believers¡¡are¡¡hypnotised¡¡by¡¡their¡¡faith£»
and¡¡we¡¡know¡¡to¡day¡¡that¡¡certain¡¡forms¡¡of¡¡hypnotism¡¡engender
complete¡¡insensibility¡£
The¡¡new¡¡faith¡¡progressed¡¡rapidly¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡1560¡¡there¡¡were¡¡two
thousand¡¡reformed¡¡churches¡¡in¡¡France£»¡¡and¡¡many¡¡great¡¡lords£»¡¡at
first¡¡indifferent¡¡enough£»¡¡adhered¡¡to¡¡the¡¡new¡¡doctrine¡£
5¡£¡¡¡¡Conflict¡¡between¡¡different¡¡religious¡¡beliefsImpossibility
of¡¡Tolerance¡£
I¡¡have¡¡already¡¡stated¡¡that¡¡intolerance¡¡is¡¡always¡¡an¡¡accompaniment
of¡¡powerful¡¡religious¡¡beliefs¡£¡¡¡¡Political¡¡and¡¡religious
revolutions¡¡furnish¡¡us¡¡with¡¡numerous¡¡proofs¡¡of¡¡this¡¡fact£»¡¡and
show¡¡us¡¡also¡¡that¡¡the¡¡mutual¡¡intolerance¡¡of¡¡sectaries¡¡of¡¡the¡¡same
religion¡¡is¡¡always¡¡much¡¡greater¡¡than¡¡that¡¡of¡¡the¡¡defenders
of¡¡remote¡¡and¡¡alien¡¡faiths£»¡¡such¡¡as¡¡Islamism¡¡and¡¡Christianity¡£¡¡
In¡¡fact£»¡¡if¡¡we¡¡consider¡¡the¡¡faiths¡¡for¡¡whose¡¡sake¡¡France¡¡was¡¡so
long¡¡rent¡¡asunder£»¡¡we¡¡shall¡¡find¡¡that¡¡they¡¡did¡¡not¡¡differ¡¡on¡¡any
but¡¡accessory¡¡points¡£¡¡¡¡Catholics¡¡and¡¡Protestants¡¡adored¡¡exactly
the¡¡same¡¡God£»¡¡and¡¡only¡¡differed¡¡in¡¡their¡¡manner¡¡of¡¡adoring¡¡Him¡£¡¡
If¡¡reason¡¡had¡¡played¡¡the¡¡smallest¡¡part¡¡in¡¡the¡¡elaboration¡¡of
their¡¡belief£»¡¡it¡¡could¡¡easily¡¡have¡¡proved¡¡to¡¡them¡¡that¡¡it¡¡must¡¡be
quite¡¡indifferent¡¡to¡¡God¡¡whether¡¡He¡¡sees¡¡men¡¡adore¡¡Him¡¡in¡¡this
fashion¡¡or¡¡in¡¡that¡£
Reason¡¡being¡¡powerless¡¡to¡¡affect¡¡the¡¡brain¡¡of¡¡the¡¡convinced£»
Protestants¡¡and¡¡Catholics¡¡continued¡¡their¡¡ferocious¡¡conflicts¡£¡¡
All¡¡the¡¡efforts¡¡of¡¡their¡¡sovereigns¡¡to¡¡reconcile¡¡them¡¡were¡¡in
vain¡£¡¡¡¡Catherine¡¡de¡¡Medicis£»¡¡seeing¡¡the¡¡party¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Reformed
Church¡¡increasing¡¡day¡¡by¡¡day¡¡in¡¡spite¡¡of¡¡persecution£»¡¡and
attracting¡¡a¡¡considerable¡¡number¡¡of¡¡nobles¡¡and¡¡magistrates£»
thought¡¡to¡¡disarm¡¡them¡¡by¡¡convoking¡¡at¡¡Poissy£»¡¡in¡¡1561£»¡¡an
assembly¡¡of¡¡bishops¡¡and¡¡pastors¡¡with¡¡the¡¡object¡¡of¡¡fusing¡¡the¡¡two
doctrines¡£¡¡¡¡Such¡¡an¡¡enterprise¡¡indicated¡¡that¡¡the¡¡queen£»¡¡despite
her¡¡subtlety£»¡¡knew¡¡nothing¡¡of¡¡the¡¡laws¡¡of¡¡mystic¡¡logic¡£¡¡¡¡Not¡¡in
all¡¡history¡¡can¡¡one¡¡cite¡¡an¡¡example¡¡of¡¡a¡¡belief¡¡destroyed¡¡or
reduced¡¡by¡¡means¡¡of¡¡refutation¡£¡¡¡¡Catherine¡¡did¡¡not¡¡even¡¡know¡¡that
although¡¡toleration¡¡is¡¡with¡¡difficulty¡¡possible¡¡between
individuals£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡impossible¡¡between¡¡collectivities¡£¡¡¡¡Her
attempt¡¡failed¡¡completely¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡assembled¡¡theologians¡¡hurled
texts¡¡and¡¡insults¡¡at¡¡one¡¡another's¡¡heads£»¡¡but¡¡no¡¡one¡¡was¡¡moved¡£¡¡
Catherine¡¡thought¡¡to¡¡succeed¡¡better¡¡in¡¡1562¡¡by¡¡promulgating¡¡an
edict¡¡according¡¡Protestants¡¡the¡¡right¡¡to¡¡unite¡¡in¡¡the¡¡public
celebration¡¡of¡¡their¡¡cult¡£
This¡¡tolerance£»¡¡very¡¡admirable¡¡from¡¡a¡¡philosophical¡¡point¡¡of
view£»¡¡but¡¡not¡¡at¡¡all¡¡wise¡¡from¡¡the¡¡political¡¡standpoint£»¡¡had¡¡no
other¡¡result¡¡beyond¡¡exasperating¡¡both¡¡parties¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡the¡¡Midi£»
where¡¡the¡¡Protestants¡¡were¡¡strongest£»¡¡they¡¡persecuted¡¡the
Catholics£»¡¡sought¡¡to¡¡convert¡¡them¡¡by¡¡violence£»¡¡cut¡¡their¡¡throats
if¡¡they¡¡did¡¡not¡¡succeed£»¡¡and¡¡sacked¡¡their¡¡cathedrals¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡the
regions¡¡where¡¡the¡¡Catholics¡¡were¡¡more¡¡numerous¡¡the¡¡Reformers
suffered¡¡like¡¡persecutions¡£
Such¡¡hostilities¡¡as¡¡these¡¡inevitably¡¡engendered¡¡civil¡¡war¡£¡¡¡¡Thus
arose¡¡the¡¡so¡called¡¡religious¡¡wars£»¡¡which¡¡so¡¡long¡¡spilled¡¡the
blood¡¡of¡¡France¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡cities¡¡were¡¡ravaged£»¡¡the¡¡inhabitants
massacred£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡struggle¡¡rapidly¡¡assumed¡¡that¡¡special¡¡quality
of¡¡ferocity¡¡peculiar¡¡to¡¡religious¡¡or¡¡political¡¡conflicts£»¡¡which£»
at¡¡a¡¡later¡¡date£»¡¡was¡¡to¡¡reappear¡¡in¡¡the¡¡wars¡¡of¡¡La¡¡Vendee¡£
Old¡¡men£»¡¡women£»¡¡and¡¡children£»¡¡all¡¡were¡¡exterminated¡£¡¡¡¡A¡¡certain
Baron¡¡d'Oppede£»¡¡first¡¡president¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Parliament¡¡of¡¡Aix£»¡¡had
already¡¡set¡¡an¡¡example¡¡by¡¡killing¡¡3£»000¡¡persons¡¡in¡¡the¡¡space¡¡of
ten¡¡days£»¡¡with¡¡refinements¡¡of¡¡cruelty£»¡¡and¡¡destroying¡¡three
cities¡¡and¡¡twenty¡two¡¡villages¡£¡¡¡¡Montluc£»¡¡a¡¡worthy¡¡forerunner¡¡of
Carrier£»¡¡had¡¡the¡¡Calvinists¡¡thrown¡¡living¡¡into¡¡the¡¡wells¡¡until
these¡¡were¡¡full¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Protestants¡¡were¡¡no¡¡more¡¡humane¡£¡¡¡¡They¡¡did
not¡¡spare¡¡even¡¡the¡¡Catholic¡¡churches£»¡¡and¡¡treated¡¡the¡¡tombs¡¡and
statues¡¡just¡¡as¡¡the¡¡delegates¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Convention¡¡were¡¡to¡¡treat¡¡the
royal¡¡tombs¡¡of¡¡Saint¡¡Denis¡£
Under¡¡the¡¡influence¡¡of¡¡these¡¡conflicts¡¡France¡¡was¡¡progressively
disintegrated£»¡¡and¡¡at¡¡the¡¡end¡¡of¡¡the¡¡reign¡¡of¡¡Henri¡¡III¡£¡¡was
parcelled¡¡out¡¡into¡¡veritable¡¡little¡¡confederated¡¡municipal
republics£»¡¡forming¡¡so¡¡many¡¡sovereign¡¡states¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡royal¡¡power¡¡was
vanishing¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡States¡¡of¡¡Blois¡¡claimed¡¡to¡¡dictate¡¡their¡¡wishes
to¡¡Henri¡¡III¡££»¡¡who¡¡had¡¡fled¡¡from¡¡his¡¡capital¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡1577¡¡the
traveller¡¡Lippomano£»¡¡who¡¡traversed¡¡France£»¡¡saw