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С˵£º the psychology of revolution ×ÖÊý£º ÿҳ3500×Ö

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Luther¡¡having¡¡taught¡¡that¡¡the¡¡clergy¡¡had¡¡no¡¡need¡¡of¡¡wealth£»¡¡the

German¡¡lords¡¡found¡¡many¡¡merits¡¡in¡¡a¡¡faith¡¡which¡¡enabled¡¡them¡¡to

seize¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡goods¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Church¡£¡¡¡¡Henry¡¡VIII¡£¡¡enriched

himself¡¡by¡¡a¡¡similar¡¡operation¡£¡¡¡¡Sovereigns¡¡who¡¡were¡¡often

molested¡¡by¡¡the¡¡Pope¡¡could¡¡as¡¡a¡¡rule¡¡only¡¡look¡¡favourably¡¡upon¡¡a

doctrine¡¡which¡¡added¡¡religious¡¡powers¡¡to¡¡their¡¡political¡¡powers

and¡¡made¡¡each¡¡of¡¡them¡¡a¡¡Pope¡£¡¡¡¡Far¡¡from¡¡diminishing¡¡the

absolutism¡¡of¡¡rulers£»¡¡the¡¡Reformation¡¡only¡¡exaggerated¡¡it¡£





3¡£¡¡¡¡Rational¡¡value¡¡of¡¡the¡¡doctrines¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Reformation¡£





The¡¡Reformation¡¡overturned¡¡all¡¡Europe£»¡¡and¡¡came¡¡near¡¡to¡¡ruining

France£»¡¡of¡¡which¡¡it¡¡made¡¡a¡¡battle¡­field¡¡for¡¡a¡¡period¡¡of¡¡fifty

years¡£¡¡¡¡Never¡¡did¡¡a¡¡cause¡¡so¡¡insignificant¡¡from¡¡the¡¡rational

point¡¡of¡¡view¡¡produce¡¡such¡¡great¡¡results¡£



Here¡¡is¡¡one¡¡of¡¡the¡¡innumerable¡¡proofs¡¡of¡¡the¡¡fact¡¡that¡¡beliefs

are¡¡propagated¡¡independently¡¡of¡¡all¡¡reason¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡theological

doctrines¡¡which¡¡aroused¡¡men's¡¡passions¡¡so¡¡violently£»¡¡and¡¡notably

those¡¡of¡¡Calvin£»¡¡are¡¡not¡¡even¡¡worthy¡¡of¡¡examination¡¡in¡¡the¡¡light

of¡¡rational¡¡logic¡£



Greatly¡¡concerned¡¡about¡¡his¡¡salvation£»¡¡having¡¡an¡¡excessive¡¡fear

of¡¡the¡¡devil£»¡¡which¡¡his¡¡confessor¡¡was¡¡unable¡¡to¡¡allay£»¡¡Luther

sought¡¡the¡¡surest¡¡means¡¡of¡¡pleasing¡¡God¡¡that¡¡he¡¡might¡¡avoid¡¡Hell¡£



Having¡¡commenced¡¡by¡¡denying¡¡the¡¡Pope¡¡the¡¡right¡¡to¡¡sell

indulgences£»¡¡he¡¡presently¡¡entirely¡¡denied¡¡his¡¡authority£»¡¡and¡¡that

of¡¡the¡¡Church£»¡¡condemned¡¡religious¡¡ceremonies£»¡¡confession£»¡¡and

the¡¡worship¡¡of¡¡the¡¡saints£»¡¡and¡¡declared¡¡that¡¡Christians¡¡should

have¡¡no¡¡rules¡¡of¡¡conduct¡¡other¡¡than¡¡the¡¡Bible¡£¡¡¡¡He¡¡also

considered¡¡that¡¡no¡¡one¡¡could¡¡be¡¡saved¡¡without¡¡the¡¡grace¡¡of¡¡God¡£



This¡¡last¡¡theory£»¡¡known¡¡as¡¡that¡¡of¡¡predestination£»¡¡was¡¡in¡¡Luther

rather¡¡uncertain£»¡¡but¡¡was¡¡stated¡¡precisely¡¡by¡¡Calvin£»¡¡who¡¡made¡¡it

the¡¡very¡¡foundation¡¡of¡¡a¡¡doctrine¡¡to¡¡which¡¡the¡¡majority¡¡of

Protestants¡¡are¡¡still¡¡subservient¡£¡¡¡¡According¡¡to¡¡him£º¡¡¡®¡®From

all¡¡eternity¡¡God¡¡has¡¡predestined¡¡certain¡¡men¡¡to¡¡be¡¡burned¡¡and

others¡¡to¡¡be¡¡saved¡£''¡¡¡¡Why¡¡this¡¡monstrous¡¡iniquity£¿¡¡¡¡Simply

because¡¡¡®¡®it¡¡is¡¡the¡¡will¡¡of¡¡God¡£''



Thus¡¡according¡¡to¡¡Calvin£»¡¡who¡¡for¡¡that¡¡matter¡¡merely¡¡developed

certain¡¡assertions¡¡of¡¡St¡£¡¡Augustine£»¡¡an¡¡all¡­powerful¡¡God¡¡would

amuse¡¡Himself¡¡by¡¡creating¡¡living¡¡beings¡¡simply¡¡in¡¡order¡¡to¡¡burn

them¡¡during¡¡all¡¡eternity£»¡¡without¡¡paying¡¡any¡¡heed¡¡to¡¡their¡¡acts

or¡¡merits¡£¡¡¡¡It¡¡is¡¡marvellous¡¡that¡¡such¡¡revolting¡¡insanity¡¡could

for¡¡such¡¡a¡¡length¡¡of¡¡time¡¡subjugate¡¡so¡¡many¡¡mindsmarvellous

that¡¡it¡¡does¡¡so¡¡still¡££§1£§







£§1£§¡¡The¡¡doctrine¡¡of¡¡predestination¡¡is¡¡still¡¡taught¡¡in¡¡Protestant

catechisms£»¡¡as¡¡is¡¡proved¡¡by¡¡the¡¡following¡¡passage¡¡extracted¡¡from

the¡¡last¡¡edition¡¡of¡¡an¡¡official¡¡catechism¡¡for¡¡which¡¡I¡¡sent¡¡to

Edinburgh£º



¡®¡®By¡¡the¡¡decree¡¡of¡¡God£»¡¡for¡¡the¡¡manifestation¡¡of¡¡His¡¡glory£»¡¡some

men¡¡and¡¡angels¡¡are¡¡predestinated¡¡unto¡¡everlasting¡¡life£»¡¡and

others¡¡foreordained¡¡to¡¡everlasting¡¡death¡£



¡®¡®These¡¡angels¡¡and¡¡men£»¡¡thus¡¡predestinated¡¡and¡¡foreordained£»¡¡are

particularly¡¡and¡¡unchangeably¡¡designed£»¡¡and¡¡their¡¡number¡¡is¡¡so

certain¡¡and¡¡definite¡¡that¡¡it¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡either¡¡increased¡¡or

diminished¡£



¡®¡®Those¡¡of¡¡mankind¡¡that¡¡are¡¡predestinated¡¡unto¡¡life£»¡¡God£»¡¡before

the¡¡foundation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡world¡¡was¡¡laid£»¡¡according¡¡to¡¡His¡¡eternal

and¡¡immutable¡¡purpose£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡secret¡¡counsel¡¡and¡¡good¡¡pleasure

of¡¡His¡¡will£»¡¡hath¡¡chosen¡¡in¡¡Christ¡¡unto¡¡everlasting¡¡glory£»¡¡out¡¡of

His¡¡mere¡¡free¡¡grace¡¡and¡¡love£»¡¡without¡¡any¡¡foresight¡¡of¡¡faith¡¡or

good¡¡works£»¡¡or¡¡perseverance¡¡in¡¡either¡¡of¡¡them£»¡¡or¡¡any¡¡other¡¡thing

in¡¡the¡¡creature£»¡¡as¡¡conditions£»¡¡or¡¡causes¡¡moving¡¡him¡¡thereunto£»

and¡¡all¡¡to¡¡the¡¡praise¡¡of¡¡his¡¡glorious¡¡grace¡£



¡®¡®As¡¡God¡¡hath¡¡appointed¡¡the¡¡elect¡¡unto¡¡glory£»¡¡so¡¡hath¡¡He£»¡¡by¡¡the

eternal¡¡and¡¡most¡¡free¡¡purpose¡¡of¡¡His¡¡will£»¡¡foreordained¡¡all¡¡the

means¡¡thereunto¡£¡¡¡¡Wherefore¡¡they¡¡who¡¡are¡¡elected¡¡being¡¡fallen¡¡in

Adam£»¡¡are¡¡redeemed¡¡by¡¡Christ£»¡¡are¡¡effectually¡¡called¡¡unto¡¡faith

in¡¡Christ¡¡by¡¡His¡¡spirit¡¡working¡¡in¡¡due¡¡season£»¡¡are¡¡justified£»

adopted£»¡¡sanctified£»¡¡and¡¡kept¡¡by¡¡His¡¡power¡¡through¡¡faith¡¡unto

salvation¡£¡¡¡¡Neither¡¡are¡¡any¡¡other¡¡redeemed¡¡by¡¡Christ£»¡¡effectually

called£»¡¡justified£»¡¡adopted£»¡¡sanctified£»¡¡and¡¡saved£»¡¡but¡¡the¡¡elect

only¡£''







The¡¡psychology¡¡of¡¡Calvin¡¡is¡¡not¡¡without¡¡affinity¡¡with¡¡that¡¡of

Robespierre¡£¡¡¡¡Like¡¡the¡¡latter£»¡¡the¡¡master¡¡of¡¡the¡¡pure¡¡truth£»¡¡he

sent¡¡to¡¡death¡¡those¡¡who¡¡would¡¡not¡¡accept¡¡his¡¡doctrines¡£¡¡¡¡God£»¡¡he

stated£»¡¡wishes¡¡¡®¡®that¡¡one¡¡should¡¡put¡¡aside¡¡all¡¡humanity¡¡when¡¡it

is¡¡a¡¡question¡¡of¡¡striving¡¡for¡¡his¡¡glory¡£''



The¡¡case¡¡of¡¡Calvin¡¡and¡¡his¡¡disciples¡¡shows¡¡that¡¡matters¡¡which

rationally¡¡are¡¡the¡¡most¡¡contradictory¡¡become¡¡perfectly¡¡reconciled

in¡¡minds¡¡which¡¡are¡¡hypnotised¡¡by¡¡a¡¡belief¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡the¡¡eyes¡¡of

rational¡¡logic£»¡¡it¡¡seems¡¡impossible¡¡to¡¡base¡¡a¡¡morality¡¡upon¡¡the

theory¡¡of¡¡predestination£»¡¡since¡¡whatever¡¡they¡¡do¡¡men¡¡are¡¡sure¡¡of

being¡¡either¡¡saved¡¡or¡¡damned¡£¡¡¡¡However£»¡¡Calvin¡¡had¡¡no¡¡difficulty

in¡¡erecting¡¡a¡¡most¡¡severe¡¡morality¡¡upon¡¡this¡¡totally¡¡illogical

basis¡£¡¡¡¡Considering¡¡themselves¡¡the¡¡elect¡¡of¡¡God£»¡¡his¡¡disciples

were¡¡so¡¡swollen¡¡by¡¡pride¡¡and¡¡the¡¡sense¡¡of¡¡their¡¡own¡¡dignity¡¡that

they¡¡felt¡¡obliged¡¡to¡¡serve¡¡as¡¡models¡¡in¡¡their¡¡conduct¡£





4¡£¡¡¡¡Propagation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Reformation¡£





The¡¡new¡¡faith¡¡was¡¡propagated¡¡not¡¡by¡¡speech£»¡¡still¡¡less¡¡by¡¡process

of¡¡reasoning£»¡¡but¡¡by¡¡the¡¡mechanism¡¡described¡¡in¡¡our¡¡preceding

work£º¡¡that¡¡is£»¡¡by¡¡the¡¡influence¡¡of¡¡affirmation£»¡¡repetition£»

mental¡¡contagion£»¡¡and¡¡prestige¡£¡¡¡¡At¡¡a¡¡much¡¡later¡¡date

revolutionary¡¡ideas¡¡were¡¡spread¡¡over¡¡France¡¡in¡¡the¡¡same¡¡fashion¡£



Persecution£»¡¡as¡¡we¡¡have¡¡already¡¡remarked£»¡¡only¡¡favoured¡¡this

propagation¡£¡¡¡¡Each¡¡execution¡¡led¡¡to¡¡fresh¡¡conversions£»¡¡as¡¡was

seen¡¡in¡¡the¡¡early¡¡years¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Christian¡¡Church¡£¡¡¡¡Anne¡¡Dubourg£»

Parliamentary¡¡councillor£»¡¡condemned¡¡to¡¡be¡¡burned¡¡alive£»¡¡marched

to¡¡the¡¡stake¡¡exhorting¡¡the¡¡crowd¡¡to¡¡be¡¡converted¡£¡¡¡¡¡®¡®His¡¡

constancy£»''¡¡says¡¡a¡¡witness£»¡¡¡®¡®made¡¡more¡¡Protestants¡¡among¡¡the

young¡¡men¡¡of¡¡the¡¡colleges¡¡than¡¡the¡¡books¡¡of¡¡Calvin¡£''



To¡¡prevent¡¡the¡¡condemned¡¡from¡¡speaking¡¡to¡¡the¡¡people¡¡their

tongues¡¡were¡¡cut¡¡out¡¡before¡¡they¡¡were¡¡burned¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡horror¡¡of

their¡¡sufferings¡¡was¡¡increased¡¡by¡¡attaching¡¡the¡¡victims¡¡to¡¡an

iron¡¡chain£»¡¡which¡¡enabled¡¡the¡¡executioners¡¡to¡¡plunge¡¡them¡¡into

the¡¡fire¡¡and¡¡withdraw¡¡them¡¡several¡¡times¡¡in¡¡succession¡£



But¡¡nothing¡¡induced¡¡the¡¡Protestants¡¡to¡¡retract£»¡¡even¡¡the¡¡offer¡¡of

an¡¡amnesty¡¡after¡¡they¡¡had¡¡felt¡¡the¡¡fire¡£



In¡¡1535¡¡Francis¡¡I¡££»¡¡forsaking¡¡his¡¡previous¡¡tolerance£»¡¡ordered¡¡six

fires¡¡to¡¡be¡¡lighted¡¡simultaneously¡¡in¡¡Paris¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Convention£»¡¡as

we¡¡know£»¡¡limited¡¡itself¡¡to¡¡a¡¡single¡¡guillotine¡¡in¡¡the¡¡same¡¡city¡£¡¡

It¡¡is¡¡probable¡¡that¡¡the¡¡sufferings¡¡of¡¡the¡¡victims¡¡were¡¡not¡¡very

excruciating£»¡¡the¡¡insensibility¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Christian¡¡martyrs¡¡had

already¡¡been¡¡remarked¡£¡¡¡¡Believers¡¡are¡¡hypnotised¡¡by¡¡their¡¡faith£»

and¡¡we¡¡know¡¡to¡­day¡¡that¡¡certain¡¡forms¡¡of¡¡hypnotism¡¡engender

complete¡¡insensibility¡£



The¡¡new¡¡faith¡¡progressed¡¡rapidly¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡1560¡¡there¡¡were¡¡two

thousand¡¡reformed¡¡churches¡¡in¡¡France£»¡¡and¡¡many¡¡great¡¡lords£»¡¡at

first¡¡indifferent¡¡enough£»¡¡adhered¡¡to¡¡the¡¡new¡¡doctrine¡£





5¡£¡¡¡¡Conflict¡¡between¡¡different¡¡religious¡¡beliefsImpossibility

of¡¡Tolerance¡£





I¡¡have¡¡already¡¡stated¡¡that¡¡intolerance¡¡is¡¡always¡¡an¡¡accompaniment

of¡¡powerful¡¡religious¡¡beliefs¡£¡¡¡¡Political¡¡and¡¡religious

revolutions¡¡furnish¡¡us¡¡with¡¡numerous¡¡proofs¡¡of¡¡this¡¡fact£»¡¡and

show¡¡us¡¡also¡¡that¡¡the¡¡mutual¡¡intolerance¡¡of¡¡sectaries¡¡of¡¡the¡¡same

religion¡¡is¡¡always¡¡much¡¡greater¡¡than¡¡that¡¡of¡¡the¡¡defenders

of¡¡remote¡¡and¡¡alien¡¡faiths£»¡¡such¡¡as¡¡Islamism¡¡and¡¡Christianity¡£¡¡

In¡¡fact£»¡¡if¡¡we¡¡consider¡¡the¡¡faiths¡¡for¡¡whose¡¡sake¡¡France¡¡was¡¡so

long¡¡rent¡¡asunder£»¡¡we¡¡shall¡¡find¡¡that¡¡they¡¡did¡¡not¡¡differ¡¡on¡¡any

but¡¡accessory¡¡points¡£¡¡¡¡Catholics¡¡and¡¡Protestants¡¡adored¡¡exactly

the¡¡same¡¡God£»¡¡and¡¡only¡¡differed¡¡in¡¡their¡¡manner¡¡of¡¡adoring¡¡Him¡£¡¡

If¡¡reason¡¡had¡¡played¡¡the¡¡smallest¡¡part¡¡in¡¡the¡¡elaboration¡¡of

their¡¡belief£»¡¡it¡¡could¡¡easily¡¡have¡¡proved¡¡to¡¡them¡¡that¡¡it¡¡must¡¡be

quite¡¡indifferent¡¡to¡¡God¡¡whether¡¡He¡¡sees¡¡men¡¡adore¡¡Him¡¡in¡¡this

fashion¡¡or¡¡in¡¡that¡£



Reason¡¡being¡¡powerless¡¡to¡¡affect¡¡the¡¡brain¡¡of¡¡the¡¡convinced£»

Protestants¡¡and¡¡Catholics¡¡continued¡¡their¡¡ferocious¡¡conflicts¡£¡¡

All¡¡the¡¡efforts¡¡of¡¡their¡¡sovereigns¡¡to¡¡reconcile¡¡them¡¡were¡¡in

vain¡£¡¡¡¡Catherine¡¡de¡¡Medicis£»¡¡seeing¡¡the¡¡party¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Reformed

Church¡¡increasing¡¡day¡¡by¡¡day¡¡in¡¡spite¡¡of¡¡persecution£»¡¡and

attracting¡¡a¡¡considerable¡¡number¡¡of¡¡nobles¡¡and¡¡magistrates£»

thought¡¡to¡¡disarm¡¡them¡¡by¡¡convoking¡¡at¡¡Poissy£»¡¡in¡¡1561£»¡¡an

assembly¡¡of¡¡bishops¡¡and¡¡pastors¡¡with¡¡the¡¡object¡¡of¡¡fusing¡¡the¡¡two

doctrines¡£¡¡¡¡Such¡¡an¡¡enterprise¡¡indicated¡¡that¡¡the¡¡queen£»¡¡despite

her¡¡subtlety£»¡¡knew¡¡nothing¡¡of¡¡the¡¡laws¡¡of¡¡mystic¡¡logic¡£¡¡¡¡Not¡¡in

all¡¡history¡¡can¡¡one¡¡cite¡¡an¡¡example¡¡of¡¡a¡¡belief¡¡destroyed¡¡or

reduced¡¡by¡¡means¡¡of¡¡refutation¡£¡¡¡¡Catherine¡¡did¡¡not¡¡even¡¡know¡¡that

although¡¡toleration¡¡is¡¡with¡¡difficulty¡¡possible¡¡between

individuals£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡impossible¡¡between¡¡collectivities¡£¡¡¡¡Her

attempt¡¡failed¡¡completely¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡assembled¡¡theologians¡¡hurled

texts¡¡and¡¡insults¡¡at¡¡one¡¡another's¡¡heads£»¡¡but¡¡no¡¡one¡¡was¡¡moved¡£¡¡

Catherine¡¡thought¡¡to¡¡succeed¡¡better¡¡in¡¡1562¡¡by¡¡promulgating¡¡an

edict¡¡according¡¡Protestants¡¡the¡¡right¡¡to¡¡unite¡¡in¡¡the¡¡public

celebration¡¡of¡¡their¡¡cult¡£



This¡¡tolerance£»¡¡very¡¡admirable¡¡from¡¡a¡¡philosophical¡¡point¡¡of

view£»¡¡but¡¡not¡¡at¡¡all¡¡wise¡¡from¡¡the¡¡political¡¡standpoint£»¡¡had¡¡no

other¡¡result¡¡beyond¡¡exasperating¡¡both¡¡parties¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡the¡¡Midi£»

where¡¡the¡¡Protestants¡¡were¡¡strongest£»¡¡they¡¡persecuted¡¡the

Catholics£»¡¡sought¡¡to¡¡convert¡¡them¡¡by¡¡violence£»¡¡cut¡¡their¡¡throats

if¡¡they¡¡did¡¡not¡¡succeed£»¡¡and¡¡sacked¡¡their¡¡cathedrals¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡the

regions¡¡where¡¡the¡¡Catholics¡¡were¡¡more¡¡numerous¡¡the¡¡Reformers

suffered¡¡like¡¡persecutions¡£



Such¡¡hostilities¡¡as¡¡these¡¡inevitably¡¡engendered¡¡civil¡¡war¡£¡¡¡¡Thus

arose¡¡the¡¡so¡­called¡¡religious¡¡wars£»¡¡which¡¡so¡¡long¡¡spilled¡¡the

blood¡¡of¡¡France¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡cities¡¡were¡¡ravaged£»¡¡the¡¡inhabitants

massacred£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡struggle¡¡rapidly¡¡assumed¡¡that¡¡special¡¡quality

of¡¡ferocity¡¡peculiar¡¡to¡¡religious¡¡or¡¡political¡¡conflicts£»¡¡which£»

at¡¡a¡¡later¡¡date£»¡¡was¡¡to¡¡reappear¡¡in¡¡the¡¡wars¡¡of¡¡La¡¡Vendee¡£



Old¡¡men£»¡¡women£»¡¡and¡¡children£»¡¡all¡¡were¡¡exterminated¡£¡¡¡¡A¡¡certain

Baron¡¡d'Oppede£»¡¡first¡¡president¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Parliament¡¡of¡¡Aix£»¡¡had

already¡¡set¡¡an¡¡example¡¡by¡¡killing¡¡3£»000¡¡persons¡¡in¡¡the¡¡space¡¡of

ten¡¡days£»¡¡with¡¡refinements¡¡of¡¡cruelty£»¡¡and¡¡destroying¡¡three

cities¡¡and¡¡twenty¡­two¡¡villages¡£¡¡¡¡Montluc£»¡¡a¡¡worthy¡¡forerunner¡¡of

Carrier£»¡¡had¡¡the¡¡Calvinists¡¡thrown¡¡living¡¡into¡¡the¡¡wells¡¡until

these¡¡were¡¡full¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Protestants¡¡were¡¡no¡¡more¡¡humane¡£¡¡¡¡They¡¡did

not¡¡spare¡¡even¡¡the¡¡Catholic¡¡churches£»¡¡and¡¡treated¡¡the¡¡tombs¡¡and

statues¡¡just¡¡as¡¡the¡¡delegates¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Convention¡¡were¡¡to¡¡treat¡¡the

royal¡¡tombs¡¡of¡¡Saint¡¡Denis¡£



Under¡¡the¡¡influence¡¡of¡¡these¡¡conflicts¡¡France¡¡was¡¡progressively

disintegrated£»¡¡and¡¡at¡¡the¡¡end¡¡of¡¡the¡¡reign¡¡of¡¡Henri¡¡III¡£¡¡was

parcelled¡¡out¡¡into¡¡veritable¡¡little¡¡confederated¡¡municipal

republics£»¡¡forming¡¡so¡¡many¡¡sovereign¡¡states¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡royal¡¡power¡¡was

vanishing¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡States¡¡of¡¡Blois¡¡claimed¡¡to¡¡dictate¡¡their¡¡wishes

to¡¡Henri¡¡III¡££»¡¡who¡¡had¡¡fled¡¡from¡¡his¡¡capital¡£¡¡¡¡In¡¡1577¡¡the

traveller¡¡Lippomano£»¡¡who¡¡traversed¡¡France£»¡¡saw

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