lect03-第5章

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！








applied　to　all　the　subdivisions　of　Irish　society。　It　is　used　for






the　Tribe　in　its　largest　extension　as　pretending　to　some　degree






of　political　independence；　and　for　all　intermediate　bodies　down






to　the　Family　as　we　understand　it；　and　even　for　portions　of　the






Family　（Sullivan；　'Introduction；　clxii）。　It　seems　certain　that






each　of　the　various　groups　into　which　ancient　Celtic　society　was






divided　conceived　itself　as　descended　from　some　one　common






ancestor；　from　whom　the　name；　or　one　of　the　names；　of　the　entire






body　of　kinsmen　was　derived。　Although　this　assumption　was　never






in　ancient　Ireland　so　palpable　a　fiction　as　the　affiliation　of






Greek　races　or　communities　on　an　heroic　eponymous　progenitor；　it






was　probably　at　most　true　of　the　Chief　and　his　house　so　far　as






regarded　the　Irish　Tribe　taken　as　a　political　unit。　But　it　is






probable　that　it　was　occasionally；　and　even　often　true　of　the






smaller　group；　the　Sept；　sub…Tribe；　or　Joint　Family；　which






appears　to　me　to　be　the　legal　unit　of　the　Brehon　tracts。　The






traditions　regarding　the　eponymous　ancestor　of　this　group　were






distinct　and　apparently　trustworthy；　and　its　members　were　of　kin






to　one　another　in　virtue　of　their　common　descent　from　the






ancestor　who　gave　his　name　to　all。　The　chief　for　the　time　being






was；　as　the　Anglo…Irish　judges　called　him　in　the　famous　'Case　of






Gavelkind；'　the　caput　cognationis。






　　　　Not　only　was　the　Tribe　or　Sept　named　after　this　eponymous






ancestor；　but　the　territory　which　it　occupied　also　derived　from






him　the　name　which　was　in　commonest　use。　I　make　this　remark






chiefly　because　a　false　inference　has　been　drawn　from　an






assertion　of　learned　men　concerning　the　connection　between　names






of　families　and　names　of　places；　which　properly　understood　is






perfectly　sound。　It　has　been　laid　down　that；　whenever　a　family






and　place　have　the　same　name；　it　is　the　place　which　almost






certainly　gave　its　name　to　the　family。　This　is　no　doubt　true　of






feudalised　countries；　but　it　is　not　true　of　countries　as　yet






unaffected　by　feudalism。　It　is　likely　that　such　names　as






'O'Brien's　Country'　and　'Macleod's　Country'　are　as　old　as　any






appropriation　of　land　by　man；　and　this　is　worth　remembering　when






we　are　tempted　to　gauge　the　intelligence　of　an　early　writer　by






the　absurdity　of　his　etymologies。　'Hibernia'　from　an　eponymous






discoverer；　'Hyber；'　sounds　ridiculous　enough；　but　the　chronicler






who　gives　it　may　have　been　near　enough　the　age　of　tribal　society






to　think　that　the　connection　between　the　place　and　the　name　was






the　most　natural　and　probable　he　could　suggest。　Even　the　most






fanciful　etymologies　of　the　Greeks；　such　as　Hellespont；　from






Helle；　may　have　been　'survivals'　from　a　primitive　tribal　system






of　naming　places。　In　the　relation　between　names　and　places；　as　in






much　more　important　matters；　feudalism　has　singularly　added　to






the　importance　of　land。






　　　　Let　me　now　state　the　impression　which；　partly　from　the






examination　of　the　translated　texts；　legal　and　non…legal；　and






partly　by　the　aid　of　Dr。　Sullivan's　Introduction；　I　have　formed






of　the　agrarian　organisation　of　an　Irish　Tribe。　It　has　been　long






settled；　in　all　probability；　upon　the　tribal　territory。　It　is　of






sufficient　size　and　importance　to　constitute　a　political　unit；






and　possibly　at　its　apex　is　one　of　the　numerous　chieftains　whom






the　Irish　records　call　Kings。　The　primary　assumption　is　that　the






whole　of　the　tribal　territory　belongs　to　the　whole　of　the　tribe；






but　in　fact　large　portions　of　it　have　been　permanently






appropriated　to　minor　bodies　of　tribesmen。　A　part　is　allotted　in






a　special　way　to　the　Chief　as　appurtenant　to　his　office；　and






depends　from　Chief　to　Chief　according　to　a　special　rule　of






succession。　Other　portions　are　occupied　by　fragments　of　the






tribe；　some　of　which　are　under　minor　chiefs　or　'flaiths；'　while






others；　though　not　strictly　ruled　by　a　chief；　have　somebody　of　a






noble　class　to　act　as　their　representative。　All　the






unappropriated　tribe…lands　are　in　a　more　especial　way　the






property　of　the　tribe　as　a　whole；　and　no　portion　can






theoretically　be　subjected　to　more　than　a　temporary　occupation。






Such　occupations　are；　however；　frequent；　and　among　the　holders　of






tribe…land；　on　these　terms；　are　groups　of　men　calling　themselves






tribesmen；　but　being　in　reality　associations　formed　by　contract；






chiefly　for　the　purpose　of　pasturing　cattle。　Much　of　the　common






tribe…land　is　not　occupied　at　all；　but　constitutes；　to　use　the






English　expression；　the　'waste'　of　the　tribe。　Still　this　waste　is






constantly　brought　under　tillage　or　permanent　pasture　by






settlements　of　tribesmen；　and　upon　it　cultivators　of　servile






status　are　permitted　to　squat；　particularly　towards　the　border。






It　is　the　part　of　the　territory　over　which　the　authority　of　the






Chief　tends　steadily　to　increase；　and　here　it　is　that　he　settles






his　'fuidhir；'　or　stranger…tenants；　a　very　important　class　　the






outlaws　and　'broken'　men　from　other　tribes　who　come　to　him　for






protection；　and　who　are　only　connected　with　their　new　tribe　by






their　dependence　on　its　chief；　and　through　the　responsibility






which　he　incurs　for　them。






　　　　There　is　probably　great　uniformity　in　the　composition　of　the






various　groups　occupying；　permanently　or　temporary；　the　tribal






territory。　Each　seems　to　be　more　or　less　a　miniature　of　the　large






tribe　which　includes　them　all。　Each　probably　contains　freemen　and






slaves；　or　at　all　events　men　varying　materially　in　personal






status；　yet　each　calls　itself　in　some　sense　a　family。　Each　very






possibly　has　its　appropriated　land　and　its　waste；　and　conducts






tillage　and　grazing　on　the　same　principles。　Each　is　either　under






a　Chief　who　really　represents　the　common　ancestor　of　all　the　free






kinsmen；　or　under　somebody　who　has　undertaken　the






responsibilities　devolving　according　to　primitive　social　idea






upon　the　natural　head　of　the　kindred。　In　enquiries　of　the　class






upon　which　we　are　engaged　the　important　fact　which　I　stated　here






three　years　ago　should　always　be　borne　in　mind。　When　the　first






English　emigrants　settled　in　New　England　they　distributed






themselves　in　village　communities；　so　difficult　is　it　to　strike






out　new　paths　of　social　life　and　new　routes　of　social　habit。　It






is　all　but　certain　that；　in　such　a　society　as　that　of　which　we






are　speaking；　one　single　model　of　social　organisation　and　social






practice　would　prevail；　and　none　but　slight　or　insensible






departures　from　it　would　be　practicable　or　conceivable。






　　　　But　still　the　society　thus　formed　is　not　altogether






stationary。　The　temporary　occupation　of　the　common　tribe…land






tends　to　become　permanent；　either　through　the　tacit　sufferance　or






the　active　consent　of　the　tribesmen。　Particular　families　manage






to　elude　the　theoretically　periodical　re…division　of　the　common






patrimony　of　the　group；　others　obtain　allotments　with　its　consent






as　the　reward　of　service　or　the　appanage　of　office；　and　there　is






a　constant　transfer　of　lands　to　the　Church；　and　an　intimate






intermixture　of　tribal　rights　with　ecclesiastical　rights。　The






establishment　of　Property　in　Severalty　is　doubtless　retarded　both






by　the　abundance　of　land　and　by　the　very　law　under　which；　to






repeat　the　metaphor　of　the　Indian　poetess；　the　tribal　society　has






crystallised；　since　each　family　which　has　appropriated　a　portion






of　tribe…land　tends　always　to　expand　into　an　extensive　assemblage






of　tribesmen　having　equal　rights。　But　still　there　is　a






co…operation　of　causes　always　tending　to　result　in　Several






Property；　and　the　Brehon　law　shows　that　by　the　time　it　was　put






into　shape　they　had　largely　taken　effect。　As　might　be　expected；






the　severance　of　land　from　the　common　territory　appears　to　have






been　most　complete　in　the　case　of　Chiefs；　many　of　whom　have　large






private　estates　held　under　ordinary　tenure　in　addition　to　the






demesne　specially　attached　to　their　signory。






　　　　Such　is　the　picture　of　Irish　tribal　organisation　in　relation






to　the　land　which　I　have　been　able　to　present　to　my　own　mind。　All






such　descriptions　must　be　received　with　reserve：　among　other






reasons；　because　even　the　evidence　obtainable　from　the　law…tracts






is　still　incomplete。　But　if　the　account　is　in　any　degree　correct；






all　who　have　attended　to　this　class　of　subjects　will　observe　at






once　that　the　elements　of　what　we　are　accustomed　to　consider　the






specially　Germanic　land　system　are　present　in　the　territorial






arrangements　of　the　Irish　tribe。　Doubtless　there　are　material






distinctions。　Kinship　as　yet；　rather　than　landed　right；　knits　the






members　of　the　Irish　groups　together。　The　Chief　is　as　yet　a　very






different　personage　from　the　Lord　of　the　Manor。　And　there　are　no






signs　as　yet　even　of　the　beginnings　of　great　towns　and　cities。






Still　the　assertion；　which　is　the　text　of　Dr　Sullivan's　treatise；






may　be　hazarded　without　rashness；　that　everything　in　the　Germanic






has　at　least　its　embryo　in　the　Celtic　land　system。　The　study　of






the　Brehon　law　leads　to　the　same　conclusion　pointed　at　by　so　many






branches　of　modern　research。　It　conveys　a　stronger　impression






than　ever　of　a　wide　separation　between　the　Aryan　race　and　races






of　other　stocks；　but　it　suggests　that　many；　perhaps　most；　of　the






differences　in　kind　alleged　to　exist　between　Aryan　sub…races　are






really　differences　merely　in　degree　of　development。　It　is　to　be






hoped　that　contemporary　thought　will　before　long　make　an　effort






to　emancipate　itself　from　those　habits　of　levity　in　adopting






theories　of　race　which　it　seems　to　have　contracted。　Many　of　these






theories　appear　to　have　little　merit　except　the　facility　which






they　give　for