shorter logic-第1章

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　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Short　Logic

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　by　Hegel



I：　Introduction

§　1。　Objects　of　Philosophy
§　2。　Reflective　Thought
§　3。　The　Content　of　Philosophy
§　4。　Popular　Modes　of　Thought
§　5。　Reason
§　6。　All　that　is　Rational　is　Real
§　7。　Beginning　to　Reflect　
§　8。　Empirical　Knowledge
§　9。　Speculative　Logic
§　10。　The　Critical　Philosophy
§　11。　Conditions　for　the　existence　of　Philosophy
§　12。　The　Rise　of　Philosophy
§　13。　The　History　of　Philosophy
§　14。　The　System　of　Philosophy
§　15。　Each　of　the　parts　of　philosophy　is　a　philosophical　Whole。
§　16。　The　form　of　an　Encyclopaedia
§　17。　How　to　Begin？
§　18。　Subdivision　of　philosophy　into　three　Parts　


II：　Preliminary　Notion

§　19。　Logic　derived　from　a　survey　of　the　whole　system
（1）　Truth　is　the　object　of　Logic
（2）　Any　man；　it　is　supposed；　can　think　without　Logic；　as　he　can　digest　without　studying
physiology
（3）　Thought　made　itself　a　power　in　the　real　world
§　20。　（a）　Thought　regarded　as　an　activity
…n。　The　Logic　of　Aristotle　continues　to　be　the　received　system
§　21。　（b）　Thought　in　its　bearings　upon　Objects
…n。　This　universal　which　cannot　be　apprehended　by　the　senses　counts　as　the　true　and　essential
§　22。　（c）　By　the　act　of　Reflection　something　is　altered
…n。　What　reflection　elicits　is　a　product　of　our　thought
§　23。　（d）　'Think　for　yourself'
§　24。　The　Objectivity　of　Thought
（1）　Objective　thought　as　the　heart　and　soul　of　the　world
（2）　Logic　is　the　study　of　pure　thought…forms
（3）　Truth　may　be　learnt　by　Experience　or　Reflection；　or　the　pure　form　of　thought
§　25。　The　concrete　formations　of　consciousness　


III：　First　Attitude　of　Thought　to　Objectivity

§　26。　The　Method　which　has　no　doubts
§　27。　Method　not　aware　of　antithesis　of　subjective　and　objective
§　28。　Took　the　laws　and　forms　of　thought　to　be　fundamental
…n。　The　Old　Metaphysic　assumed　that　thought　apprehends　the　very　self　of　things
§　29。　God　has　many　names
§　30。　Their　objects　were　taken　as　subjects　made　and　ready
§　31。　The　common　conceptions　of　God；　etc。
…n。　Metaphysic　presupposed　the　object　ready…made
§　32。　This　system　turned　into　Dogmatism
…n。　Dogmatism　draws　a　hard　line　between　certain　terms　and　others　opposite　to　them
§　33。　Ontology
§　34。　Rational　Psychology
…n。　Rational　psychology　viewed　the　soul　through　categories　supplied　by　abstract　thought
§　35。　Cosmology
…n。　Cosmology
§　36。　Rational　Theology
…n。　The　earliest　teachings　of　religion　are　figurate　conceptions　of　God　


IV：　Second　Attitude　of　Thought　to　Objectivity
I：　Empiricism

§　37。　The　need　of　a　concrete　subject　matter
…n。　The　rise　of　Empiricism　is　due　to　the　need　of　concrete　contents
§　38。　Facts　of　experience　the　guarantee　of　correctness
…n。　From　Empiricism　came　the　cry：　'Stop　roaming　in　empty　abstractions；　keep　your　eyes　open；
。。。'
§　39。　There　are　two　elements　in　Experience　


II：　The　Critical　Philosophy

§　40。　Experience　affords　the　sole　foundation；　as　knowledge　of　phenomena
§　41。　To　test　the　value　of　the　Categories
（1）　Kant　examined　how　far　the　forms　of　thought　were　capable　of　leading　to　knowledge　of
truth
（2）　Kant　viewed　the　categories　to　see　whether　they　were　subjective　or　objective
§　42。　The　Theoretical　Faculty
（1）　Kant　holds　that　the　Categories　have　their　source　in　the　Ego
（2）　Kant's　meaning　of　the　transcendental
（3）　The　categories　are　not　contained　in　the　sensation　as　it　is　given　us
§　43。　The　Categories　as　Instrumentality　or　in　Consciousness　only
…n。　It　is　not　altogether　wrong　to　call　the　categories　empty；　but　the　content　is　not　foreign　to
them
§　44。　Incapable　of　Knowing　Things…in…Themselves
§　45。　Reason　discovers　the　conditioned　nature　of　knowledge
…n。　Kant　was　to　first　to　signal　the　distinction　between　Reason　and　Understanding
§　46。　Seeking　for　knowledge　of　the　Thing…in…itself
§　47。　The　Soul
…n。　The　soul　is　much　more　than　a　simple　or　unchangeable　sort　of　thing
§　48。　The　World
…n。　Metaphysical　philosophy　gave　rise　to　the　belief　that　contradictions　were　due　to　subjective
mistake
§　49。　Reason
§　50。　To　Begin　with　Being　in　its　natural　aspect
§　51。　To　set　out　from　the　abstractum　of　Thought
§　52。　Can　furnish　only　a　criticism　of　knowledge；　not　a　doctrine
…n。　Reason　is　unconditioned　only　in　so　far　as　its　character　is　due　to　a　foreign　content
§　53。　Practical　Reason
§　54。　The　Formalism　of　Practical　Reason
…n。　The　free　self…determination　Kant　denied　to　speculative　he　vindicated　for　practical
philosophy
§　55。　The　Reflective　Power　of　Judgment
§　56。　Theoretical　or　Practical　Reason
§　57。　Reflective　Faculty　of　Judgment
§　58。　The　relation　between　Means　and　Ends
§　59。　The　final　End　is　Realised　in　the　World
§　60。　The　Good　is　also　our　Good
（1）　Critical　philosophy　brought　home　the　conviction　that　the　categories　are　finite　in　their　range
（2）　Fichte　called　attention　to　the　want　of　a　deduction　of　the　categories　


V：　Third　Attitude　of　Thought　to
Objectivity
Immediate　or　Intuitive　Knowledge

§　61。　The　Intuitional　Theory
§　62。　Jacobi
§　63。　That　Reason　is　Knowledge　of　God
§　64。　Knowing　that　the　Infinite　Is
§　65。　That　Immediate　knowledge　can　possess　a　true　content
§　66。　Immediate　knowledge　is　to　be　accepted　as　a　fact
§　67。　But　education　is　required　to　bring　it　out。
…n。　Innate　ideas　。。　a　sort　of　mere　capacity　in　man
§　68。　Something　bound　up　with　immediate　experience
§　69。　The　doctrine　of　Immediate　Knowledge
§　70。　Being　per　se
§　71。　The　one…sidedness　of　the　Intuitional　school
§　72。　Superstition　is　allowed　to　be　true
§　73。　Only　tells　us　that　God　Is。
§　74。　The　general　nature　of　the　form　of　Immediacy
…n。　Consciousness　is　impossible　without　mediation
§　75。　Asserts　that　Immediate　knowledge　is　a　Fact
§　76。　〃I　think　therefore　I　am〃
§　77。　The　Cartesian　Philosophy
§　78。　Reject　the　opposition　between　immediate　facts　and　mediation　


VI：　Logic　Further　Defined　and　Divided

§　79。　The　Abstract；　Dialectical　and　Speculative　Sides　of　Logic
§　80。　＇a＇　Thought　as　Understanding
…n。　Understanding　is　investing　its　subject…matter　with　universality
§　81。　＇b＇　The　Dialectical　Stage　

（1）　Wherever　there　is　movement；　there　Dialectic　is　at　work。　It　is　the　soul　of　all　knowledge
which　is　scientific
（2）　Scepticism　is　complete　hopelessness　about　all　which　understanding　counts　stable
§　82。　＇c＇　The　Speculative　Stage
…n。　Philosophy　is　the　right　of　every　human　being　on　whatever　grade　of　culture　he　may　stand
§　83。　Logic　is　Divided　into　Three　Parts
…n。　The　whole　of　the　previous　discussion　is　anticipatory　


VII：　The　Doctrine　of　Being

§　84。　Being　is　the　notion　implicit　only。
§　85。　Categories　may　be　looked　upon　as　definitions　of　the　Absolute
…n。　Each　sphere　of　the　Idea　proves　to　be　a　systematic　whole　or　thought…forms　&　a　phase　of
the　Absolute　

A。　QUALITY

（a）　Being

§　86。　Pure　Being
（1）　When　thinking　is　to　begin　we　have　nothing　but　thought　in　its　merest　indeterminateness
（2）　In　the　history　of　philosophy　the　different　stages　of　the　logical　Idea　assume　the　shape　of
successive　systems
§　87。　Nothing
…n。　The　distinction　between　Being　and　Nothing　is；　in　the　first　place；　only　implicit
§　88。　Becoming
…n。　Becoming　is　the　first　concrete　thought；　and　therefore　the　first　notion　

（b）　Being　Determinate

§　89。　Being　Determinate
…n。　Becoming　is　a　fire　which　dies　out　in　itself　when　it　consumes　its　material
§　90。　＇a＇　Quality
§　91。　Reality
…n。　The　foundation　of　all　determinateness　is　negation
§　92。　＇b＇　Limit
…n。　A　thing　is　what　it　is　only　by　reason　of　its　limit
§　93。　ad　infinitum
§　94。　Infinity
…n。　The　man　who　flees　is　not　yet　free
§　95。　＇c＇　Being…for…self　

（c）　Being…for…Self

§　96。　＇a＇　Being…for…self
…n。　The　readiest　instance　of　Being…for…self　is　found　in　the　'I'
§　97。　＇b＇Many
…n。　The　One　forms　the　presupposition　of　the　Many
§　98。　＇c＇　Repulsion　and　Attraction
（1）　The　Atomic　philosophy　forms　a　vital　stage　in　the　historical　evolution　of　the　Idea
（2）　Quantity　just　means　quality　superseded　and　absorbed　


B。　QUANTITY

（a）　Pure　Quantity

§　99。　Quantity
…n。　The　mathematical　view；　which　identifies　Magnitude　with　the　Idea　is　the　principle　of
Materialism
§　100。　Continuous　and　Discrete
n。　Quantity　is　Continuous　as　well　as　Discontinuous　

（b）　Quantum

§　101。　Quantum
n。　Quantum　is　the　determinate　Being　of　quantity
§　102。　Number
n。　Number　is　the　quantum　in　its　complete　specialisation　

（c）　Degree

§　103。　Degree
…n。　Intensive　magnitude　or　Degree　is　distinct　from　Extensive　magnitude　or　Quantum
§　104。　Infinite　Quantitative　Progression
（1）　How　do　we　come　to　assume　a　capacity　of　increase　or　diminution
（2）　The　quantitative　infinite　progression　is　what　reflective　understanding　upon　when　it　is
engaged　with　Infinity
（3）　Pythagorus　philosophised　in　numbers
§　105。　Quantitative　Ratio
…n。　In　quantitative　infinite　progression　quantity　returns　to　itself
§　106。　Measure
…n。　Quantity；　by　means　of　dialectical　movement；　becomes　quality　


C。　MEASURE

§　107。　Measure
…n。　Measure；　where　quality　and　quantity　are　in　one；　is　thus　the　completion　of　Being
§　108。　Rule
…n。　The　identity　between　quantity　and　quality　is　at　first　only　implicit
§　109。　Measureless
…n。　Quantity　is　naturally　and　necessarily　a　tendency　to　exceed　itself
§　110。　Relative　identity
§　111。　In　Being　all　is　Immediate；　in　Essence　all　is　Relative
…n。　In　Being　everything　is　immediate；　in　Essence　everything　is　Relative　


VIII：　The　Doctrine　of　Essence

§　112。　The　terms　in　Essence　are　always　mere　pairs　of　correlatives
…n。　Essence　is　the　standpoint　of　'Reflection'
§　113。　Identity　or　Reflection…into…self
§　114。　The　Unessential　

A。　ESSENCE　AS　GROUND　OF　EXISTENCE

（a）　The　pure　principles　or　categories　of　Reflection

§　115。　＇a＇　Identity
…n。　Identity　is　Being　as　Ideality
§　116。　＇b＇　Difference
…n。　'How　Identity　comes　to　Difference'
§　117。　Diversity　…　Immediate　difference
…n。　When　understanding　sets　itself　to　study　Identity；　it　has　already　passed　beyond　it；　and　is
looking　at　Difference
§　118。　Likeness　and　Unlikeness　…　Specific　Difference
…n。　Likeness　and　unlikeness　are　in　completely　reciprocal　relation
§　119。　Positive　and　Negative
（1）　The　negative　per　se　is　the　same　as　difference　itself
（2）　Instead　of　the　maxim　of　the　Excluded　Middle；　we　should　say：　Everything　is　Opposite
§　120。　Essential　Difference
§　121。　＇c＇　The　Ground
…n。　Ground；　besides　being　the　unity；　is　also　the　difference　of　identity　and　difference
§　122。　Being　intermediated　by　annulling　the　intermediation　is　Existence　

（b）　Existence

§　123。　Existence　is　the　immediate　unity　of　reflection…into…self　and　reflection…into…other
…n。　'Existence'　suggests　the　fact　of　having　proceeded　from　something
§　124。　The　Existent　with　interconnections　with　others　is　a　Thing
…n。　The　man；　by　or　in　himself；　is　the　child　

（c）　The　Thing

§　125。　＇a＇　Properties
…n。　A　thing　can　lose　this　or　that　property　without　ceasing　to　be　what　it　is
§　126。　＇b＇　Matters
…n。　Disintegration　into　independent　matters　is　properly　restricted　to　inorganic　nature　only
§　127。　Matter　is　mere　abstract　reflection…into…something…else
§　128。　＇c＇　Form
…n。　Thus　we　get　one　Matter　in　general；　to　which　difference　is　expressly　attached　externally；　as
a　bare　form
§　129。　Matter　and　Form
§　130。　The　totality　of　Form　and　Matter　is