°®°®Ð¡ËµÍø > ÆäËûµç×ÓÊé > prior analytics >

µÚ16ÕÂ

prior analytics-µÚ16ÕÂ

С˵£º prior analytics ×ÖÊý£º ÿҳ3500×Ö

°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡û »ò ¡ú ¿É¿ìËÙÉÏÏ·­Ò³£¬°´¼üÅÌÉ쵀 Enter ¼ü¿É»Øµ½±¾ÊéĿ¼ҳ£¬°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡ü ¿É»Øµ½±¾Ò³¶¥²¿£¡
¡ª¡ª¡ª¡ªÎ´ÔĶÁÍꣿ¼ÓÈëÊéÇ©ÒѱãÏ´μÌÐøÔĶÁ£¡






that¡¡when¡¡syllogisms¡¡are¡¡reduced¡¡to¡¡the¡¡first¡¡figure¡¡these¡¡alone¡¡are



confirmed¡¡by¡¡reduction¡¡to¡¡what¡¡is¡¡impossible¡£



¡¡¡¡It¡¡is¡¡clear¡¡from¡¡what¡¡we¡¡have¡¡said¡¡how¡¡we¡¡ought¡¡to¡¡reduce



syllogisms£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡the¡¡figures¡¡may¡¡be¡¡resolved¡¡into¡¡one¡¡another¡£







¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡46







¡¡¡¡In¡¡establishing¡¡or¡¡refuting£»¡¡it¡¡makes¡¡some¡¡difference¡¡whether¡¡we



suppose¡¡the¡¡expressions¡¡'not¡¡to¡¡be¡¡this'¡¡and¡¡'to¡¡be¡¡not¡­this'¡¡are



identical¡¡or¡¡different¡¡in¡¡meaning£»¡¡e¡£g¡£¡¡'not¡¡to¡¡be¡¡white'¡¡and¡¡'to¡¡be



not¡­white'¡£¡¡For¡¡they¡¡do¡¡not¡¡mean¡¡the¡¡same¡¡thing£»¡¡nor¡¡is¡¡'to¡¡be



not¡­white'¡¡the¡¡negation¡¡of¡¡'to¡¡be¡¡white'£»¡¡but¡¡'not¡¡to¡¡be¡¡white'¡£¡¡The



reason¡¡for¡¡this¡¡is¡¡as¡¡follows¡£¡¡The¡¡relation¡¡of¡¡'he¡¡can¡¡walk'¡¡to¡¡'he



can¡¡not¡­walk'¡¡is¡¡similar¡¡to¡¡the¡¡relation¡¡of¡¡'it¡¡is¡¡white'¡¡to¡¡'it¡¡is



not¡­white'£»¡¡so¡¡is¡¡that¡¡of¡¡'he¡¡knows¡¡what¡¡is¡¡good'¡¡to¡¡'he¡¡knows¡¡what¡¡is



not¡­good'¡£¡¡For¡¡there¡¡is¡¡no¡¡difference¡¡between¡¡the¡¡expressions¡¡'he



knows¡¡what¡¡is¡¡good'¡¡and¡¡'he¡¡is¡¡knowing¡¡what¡¡is¡¡good'£»¡¡or¡¡'he¡¡can¡¡walk'



and¡¡'he¡¡is¡¡able¡¡to¡¡walk'£º¡¡therefore¡¡there¡¡is¡¡no¡¡difference¡¡between



their¡¡contraries¡¡'he¡¡cannot¡¡walk'¡­'he¡¡is¡¡not¡¡able¡¡to¡¡walk'¡£¡¡If¡¡then



'he¡¡is¡¡not¡¡able¡¡to¡¡walk'¡¡means¡¡the¡¡same¡¡as¡¡'he¡¡is¡¡able¡¡not¡¡to¡¡walk'£»



capacity¡¡to¡¡walk¡¡and¡¡incapacity¡¡to¡¡walk¡¡will¡¡belong¡¡at¡¡the¡¡same¡¡time



to¡¡the¡¡same¡¡person¡¡£¨for¡¡the¡¡same¡¡man¡¡can¡¡both¡¡walk¡¡and¡¡not¡­walk£»¡¡and



is¡¡possessed¡¡of¡¡knowledge¡¡of¡¡what¡¡is¡¡good¡¡and¡¡of¡¡what¡¡is¡¡not¡­good£©£»



but¡¡an¡¡affirmation¡¡and¡¡a¡¡denial¡¡which¡¡are¡¡opposed¡¡to¡¡one¡¡another¡¡do



not¡¡belong¡¡at¡¡the¡¡same¡¡time¡¡to¡¡the¡¡same¡¡thing¡£¡¡As¡¡then¡¡'not¡¡to¡¡know



what¡¡is¡¡good'¡¡is¡¡not¡¡the¡¡same¡¡as¡¡'to¡¡know¡¡what¡¡is¡¡not¡¡good'£»¡¡so¡¡'to¡¡be



not¡­good'¡¡is¡¡not¡¡the¡¡same¡¡as¡¡'not¡¡to¡¡be¡¡good'¡£¡¡For¡¡when¡¡two¡¡pairs



correspond£»¡¡if¡¡the¡¡one¡¡pair¡¡are¡¡different¡¡from¡¡one¡¡another£»¡¡the



other¡¡pair¡¡also¡¡must¡¡be¡¡different¡£¡¡Nor¡¡is¡¡'to¡¡be¡¡not¡­equal'¡¡the¡¡same



as¡¡'not¡¡to¡¡be¡¡equal'£º¡¡for¡¡there¡¡is¡¡something¡¡underlying¡¡the¡¡one£»



viz¡£¡¡that¡¡which¡¡is¡¡not¡­equal£»¡¡and¡¡this¡¡is¡¡the¡¡unequal£»¡¡but¡¡there¡¡is



nothing¡¡underlying¡¡the¡¡other¡£¡¡Wherefore¡¡not¡¡everything¡¡is¡¡either¡¡equal



or¡¡unequal£»¡¡but¡¡everything¡¡is¡¡equal¡¡or¡¡is¡¡not¡¡equal¡£¡¡Further¡¡the



expressions¡¡'it¡¡is¡¡a¡¡not¡­white¡¡log'¡¡and¡¡'it¡¡is¡¡not¡¡a¡¡white¡¡log'¡¡do¡¡not



imply¡¡one¡¡another's¡¡truth¡£¡¡For¡¡if¡¡'it¡¡is¡¡a¡¡not¡­white¡¡log'£»¡¡it¡¡must



be¡¡a¡¡log£º¡¡but¡¡that¡¡which¡¡is¡¡not¡¡a¡¡white¡¡log¡¡need¡¡not¡¡be¡¡a¡¡log¡¡at



all¡£¡¡Therefore¡¡it¡¡is¡¡clear¡¡that¡¡'it¡¡is¡¡not¡­good'¡¡is¡¡not¡¡the¡¡denial



of¡¡'it¡¡is¡¡good'¡£¡¡If¡¡then¡¡every¡¡single¡¡statement¡¡may¡¡truly¡¡be¡¡said¡¡to



be¡¡either¡¡an¡¡affirmation¡¡or¡¡a¡¡negation£»¡¡if¡¡it¡¡is¡¡not¡¡a¡¡negation



clearly¡¡it¡¡must¡¡in¡¡a¡¡sense¡¡be¡¡an¡¡affirmation¡£¡¡But¡¡every¡¡affirmation



has¡¡a¡¡corresponding¡¡negation¡£¡¡The¡¡negation¡¡then¡¡of¡¡'it¡¡is¡¡not¡­good'¡¡is



'it¡¡is¡¡not¡¡not¡­good'¡£¡¡The¡¡relation¡¡of¡¡these¡¡statements¡¡to¡¡one



another¡¡is¡¡as¡¡follows¡£¡¡Let¡¡A¡¡stand¡¡for¡¡'to¡¡be¡¡good'£»¡¡B¡¡for¡¡'not¡¡to



be¡¡good'£»¡¡let¡¡C¡¡stand¡¡for¡¡'to¡¡be¡¡not¡­good'¡¡and¡¡be¡¡placed¡¡under¡¡B£»



and¡¡let¡¡D¡¡stand¡¡for¡¡not¡¡to¡¡be¡¡not¡­good'¡¡and¡¡be¡¡placed¡¡under¡¡A¡£¡¡Then



either¡¡A¡¡or¡¡B¡¡will¡¡belong¡¡to¡¡everything£»¡¡but¡¡they¡¡will¡¡never¡¡belong¡¡to



the¡¡same¡¡thing£»¡¡and¡¡either¡¡C¡¡or¡¡D¡¡will¡¡belong¡¡to¡¡everything£»¡¡but



they¡¡will¡¡never¡¡belong¡¡to¡¡the¡¡same¡¡thing¡£¡¡And¡¡B¡¡must¡¡belong¡¡to



everything¡¡to¡¡which¡¡C¡¡belongs¡£¡¡For¡¡if¡¡it¡¡is¡¡true¡¡to¡¡say¡¡'it¡¡is¡¡a



not¡­white'£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡true¡¡also¡¡to¡¡say¡¡'it¡¡is¡¡not¡¡white'£º¡¡for¡¡it¡¡is



impossible¡¡that¡¡a¡¡thing¡¡should¡¡simultaneously¡¡be¡¡white¡¡and¡¡be



not¡­white£»¡¡or¡¡be¡¡a¡¡not¡­white¡¡log¡¡and¡¡be¡¡a¡¡white¡¡log£»¡¡consequently¡¡if



the¡¡affirmation¡¡does¡¡not¡¡belong£»¡¡the¡¡denial¡¡must¡¡belong¡£¡¡But¡¡C¡¡does



not¡¡always¡¡belong¡¡to¡¡B£º¡¡for¡¡what¡¡is¡¡not¡¡a¡¡log¡¡at¡¡all£»¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡a



not¡­white¡¡log¡¡either¡£¡¡On¡¡the¡¡other¡¡hand¡¡D¡¡belongs¡¡to¡¡everything¡¡to



which¡¡A¡¡belongs¡£¡¡For¡¡either¡¡C¡¡or¡¡D¡¡belongs¡¡to¡¡everything¡¡to¡¡which¡¡A



belongs¡£¡¡But¡¡since¡¡a¡¡thing¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡simultaneously¡¡not¡­white¡¡and



white£»¡¡D¡¡must¡¡belong¡¡to¡¡everything¡¡to¡¡which¡¡A¡¡belongs¡£¡¡For¡¡of¡¡that



which¡¡is¡¡white¡¡it¡¡is¡¡true¡¡to¡¡say¡¡that¡¡it¡¡is¡¡not¡¡not¡­white¡£¡¡But¡¡A¡¡is



not¡¡true¡¡of¡¡all¡¡D¡£¡¡For¡¡of¡¡that¡¡which¡¡is¡¡not¡¡a¡¡log¡¡at¡¡all¡¡it¡¡is¡¡not



true¡¡to¡¡say¡¡A£»¡¡viz¡£¡¡that¡¡it¡¡is¡¡a¡¡white¡¡log¡£¡¡Consequently¡¡D¡¡is¡¡true£»



but¡¡A¡¡is¡¡not¡¡true£»¡¡i¡£e¡£¡¡that¡¡it¡¡is¡¡a¡¡white¡¡log¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡clear¡¡also



that¡¡A¡¡and¡¡C¡¡cannot¡¡together¡¡belong¡¡to¡¡the¡¡same¡¡thing£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡B



and¡¡D¡¡may¡¡possibly¡¡belong¡¡to¡¡the¡¡same¡¡thing¡£



¡¡¡¡Privative¡¡terms¡¡are¡¡similarly¡¡related¡¡positive¡¡ter¡¡terms¡¡respect



of¡¡this¡¡arrangement¡£¡¡Let¡¡A¡¡stand¡¡for¡¡'equal'£»¡¡B¡¡for¡¡'not¡¡equal'£»¡¡C¡¡for



'unequal'£»¡¡D¡¡for¡¡'not¡¡unequal'¡£



¡¡¡¡In¡¡many¡¡things¡¡also£»¡¡to¡¡some¡¡of¡¡which¡¡something¡¡belongs¡¡which¡¡does



not¡¡belong¡¡to¡¡others£»¡¡the¡¡negation¡¡may¡¡be¡¡true¡¡in¡¡a¡¡similar¡¡way£»



viz¡£¡¡that¡¡all¡¡are¡¡not¡¡white¡¡or¡¡that¡¡each¡¡is¡¡not¡¡white£»¡¡while¡¡that¡¡each



is¡¡not¡­white¡¡or¡¡all¡¡are¡¡not¡­white¡¡is¡¡false¡£¡¡Similarly¡¡also¡¡'every



animal¡¡is¡¡not¡­white'¡¡is¡¡not¡¡the¡¡negation¡¡of¡¡'every¡¡animal¡¡is¡¡white'



£¨for¡¡both¡¡are¡¡false£©£º¡¡the¡¡proper¡¡negation¡¡is¡¡'every¡¡animal¡¡is¡¡not



white'¡£¡¡Since¡¡it¡¡is¡¡clear¡¡that¡¡'it¡¡is¡¡not¡­white'¡¡and¡¡'it¡¡is¡¡not¡¡white'



mean¡¡different¡¡things£»¡¡and¡¡one¡¡is¡¡an¡¡affirmation£»¡¡the¡¡other¡¡a



denial£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡evident¡¡that¡¡the¡¡method¡¡of¡¡proving¡¡each¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡the



same£»¡¡e¡£g¡£¡¡that¡¡whatever¡¡is¡¡an¡¡animal¡¡is¡¡not¡¡white¡¡or¡¡may¡¡not¡¡be



white£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡it¡¡is¡¡true¡¡to¡¡call¡¡it¡¡not¡­white£»¡¡for¡¡this¡¡means¡¡that



it¡¡is¡¡not¡­white¡£¡¡But¡¡we¡¡may¡¡prove¡¡that¡¡it¡¡is¡¡true¡¡to¡¡call¡¡it¡¡white



or¡¡not¡­white¡¡in¡¡the¡¡same¡¡way¡¡for¡¡both¡¡are¡¡proved¡¡constructively¡¡by



means¡¡of¡¡the¡¡first¡¡figure¡£¡¡For¡¡the¡¡expression¡¡'it¡¡is¡¡true'¡¡stands¡¡on¡¡a



similar¡¡footing¡¡to¡¡'it¡¡is'¡£¡¡For¡¡the¡¡negation¡¡of¡¡'it¡¡is¡¡true¡¡to¡¡call¡¡it



white'¡¡is¡¡not¡¡'it¡¡is¡¡true¡¡to¡¡call¡¡it¡¡not¡­white'¡¡but¡¡'it¡¡is¡¡not¡¡true¡¡to



call¡¡it¡¡white'¡£¡¡If¡¡then¡¡it¡¡is¡¡to¡¡be¡¡true¡¡to¡¡say¡¡that¡¡whatever¡¡is¡¡a¡¡man



is¡¡musical¡¡or¡¡is¡¡not¡­musical£»¡¡we¡¡must¡¡assume¡¡that¡¡whatever¡¡is¡¡an



animal¡¡either¡¡is¡¡musical¡¡or¡¡is¡¡not¡­musical£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡proof¡¡has¡¡been



made¡£¡¡That¡¡whatever¡¡is¡¡a¡¡man¡¡is¡¡not¡¡musical¡¡is¡¡proved¡¡destructively¡¡in



the¡¡three¡¡ways¡¡mentioned¡£



¡¡¡¡In¡¡general¡¡whenever¡¡A¡¡and¡¡B¡¡are¡¡such¡¡that¡¡they¡¡cannot¡¡belong¡¡at



the¡¡same¡¡time¡¡to¡¡the¡¡same¡¡thing£»¡¡and¡¡one¡¡of¡¡the¡¡two¡¡necessarily



belongs¡¡to¡¡everything£»¡¡and¡¡again¡¡C¡¡and¡¡D¡¡are¡¡related¡¡in¡¡the¡¡same



way£»¡¡and¡¡A¡¡follows¡¡C¡¡but¡¡the¡¡relation¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡reversed£»¡¡then¡¡D



must¡¡follow¡¡B¡¡and¡¡the¡¡relation¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡reversed¡£¡¡And¡¡A¡¡and¡¡D¡¡may



belong¡¡to¡¡the¡¡same¡¡thing£»¡¡but¡¡B¡¡and¡¡C¡¡cannot¡£¡¡First¡¡it¡¡is¡¡clear¡¡from



the¡¡following¡¡consideration¡¡that¡¡D¡¡follows¡¡B¡£¡¡For¡¡since¡¡either¡¡C¡¡or



D¡¡necessarily¡¡belongs¡¡to¡¡everything£»¡¡and¡¡since¡¡C¡¡cannot¡¡belong¡¡to¡¡that



to¡¡which¡¡B¡¡belongs£»¡¡because¡¡it¡¡carries¡¡A¡¡along¡¡with¡¡it¡¡and¡¡A¡¡and¡¡B



cannot¡¡belong¡¡to¡¡the¡¡same¡¡thing£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡clear¡¡that¡¡D¡¡must¡¡follow¡¡B¡£



Again¡¡since¡¡C¡¡does¡¡not¡¡reciprocate¡¡with¡¡but¡¡A£»¡¡but¡¡C¡¡or¡¡D¡¡belongs¡¡to



everything£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡possible¡¡that¡¡A¡¡and¡¡D¡¡should¡¡belong¡¡to¡¡the¡¡same



thing¡£¡¡But¡¡B¡¡and¡¡C¡¡cannot¡¡belong¡¡to¡¡the¡¡same¡¡thing£»¡¡because¡¡A



follows¡¡C£»¡¡and¡¡so¡¡something¡¡impossible¡¡results¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡clear¡¡then



that¡¡B¡¡does¡¡not¡¡reciprocate¡¡with¡¡D¡¡either£»¡¡since¡¡it¡¡is¡¡possible¡¡that¡¡D



and¡¡A¡¡should¡¡belong¡¡at¡¡the¡¡same¡¡time¡¡to¡¡the¡¡same¡¡thing¡£



¡¡¡¡It¡¡results¡¡sometimes¡¡even¡¡in¡¡such¡¡an¡¡arrangement¡¡of¡¡terms¡¡that¡¡one



is¡¡deceived¡¡through¡¡not¡¡apprehending¡¡the¡¡opposites¡¡rightly£»¡¡one¡¡of



which¡¡must¡¡belong¡¡to¡¡everything£»¡¡e¡£g¡£¡¡we¡¡may¡¡reason¡¡that¡¡'if¡¡A¡¡and¡¡B



cannot¡¡belong¡¡at¡¡the¡¡same¡¡time¡¡to¡¡the¡¡same¡¡thing£»¡¡but¡¡it¡¡is



necessary¡¡that¡¡one¡¡of¡¡them¡¡should¡¡belong¡¡to¡¡whatever¡¡the¡¡other¡¡does



not¡¡belong¡¡to£º¡¡and¡¡again¡¡C¡¡and¡¡D¡¡are¡¡related¡¡in¡¡the¡¡same¡¡way£»¡¡and



follows¡¡everything¡¡which¡¡C¡¡follows£º¡¡it¡¡will¡¡result¡¡that¡¡B¡¡belongs



necessarily¡¡to¡¡everything¡¡to¡¡which¡¡D¡¡belongs'£º¡¡but¡¡this¡¡is¡¡false¡£



'Assume¡¡that¡¡F¡¡stands¡¡for¡¡the¡¡negation¡¡of¡¡A¡¡and¡¡B£»¡¡and¡¡again¡¡that¡¡H



stands¡¡for¡¡the¡¡negation¡¡of¡¡C¡¡and¡¡D¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡necessary¡¡then¡¡that¡¡either¡¡A



or¡¡F¡¡should¡¡belong¡¡to¡¡everything£º¡¡for¡¡either¡¡the¡¡affirmation¡¡or¡¡the



denial¡¡must¡¡belong¡£¡¡And¡¡again¡¡either¡¡C¡¡or¡¡H¡¡must¡¡belong¡¡to¡¡everything£º



for¡¡they¡¡are¡¡related¡¡as¡¡affirmation¡¡and¡¡denial¡£¡¡And¡¡ex¡¡hypothesi¡¡A



belongs¡¡to¡¡everything¡¡ever¡¡thing¡¡to¡¡which¡¡C¡¡belongs¡£¡¡Therefore¡¡H



belongs¡¡to¡¡everything¡¡to¡¡which¡¡F¡¡belongs¡£¡¡Again¡¡since¡¡either¡¡F¡¡or¡¡B



belongs¡¡to¡¡everything£»¡¡and¡¡similarly¡¡either¡¡H¡¡or¡¡D£»¡¡and¡¡since¡¡H



follows¡¡F£»¡¡B¡¡must¡¡follow¡¡D£º¡¡for¡¡we¡¡know¡¡this¡£¡¡If¡¡then¡¡A¡¡follows¡¡C£»¡¡B



must¡¡follow¡¡D'¡£¡¡But¡¡this¡¡is¡¡false£º¡¡for¡¡as¡¡we¡¡proved¡¡the¡¡sequence¡¡is



reversed¡¡in¡¡terms¡¡so¡¡constituted¡£¡¡The¡¡fallacy¡¡arises¡¡because¡¡perhaps



it¡¡is¡¡not¡¡necessary¡¡that¡¡A¡¡or¡¡F¡¡should¡¡belong¡¡to¡¡everything£»¡¡or¡¡that¡¡F



or¡¡B¡¡should¡¡belong¡¡to¡¡everything£º¡¡for¡¡F¡¡is¡¡not¡¡the¡¡denial¡¡of¡¡A¡£¡¡For



not¡¡good¡¡is¡¡the¡¡negation¡¡of¡¡good£º¡¡and¡¡not¡­good¡¡is¡¡not¡¡identical¡¡with



'neither¡¡good¡¡nor¡¡not¡­good'¡£¡¡Similarly¡¡also¡¡with¡¡C¡¡and¡¡D¡£¡¡For¡¡two



negations¡¡have¡¡been¡¡assumed¡¡in¡¡respect¡¡to¡¡one¡¡term¡£











¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Book¡¡II



¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡1







¡¡¡¡WE¡¡have¡¡already¡¡explained¡¡the¡¡number¡¡of¡¡the¡¡figures£»¡¡the¡¡character



and¡¡number¡¡of¡¡the¡¡premisses£»¡¡when¡¡and¡¡how¡¡a¡¡syllogism¡¡is¡¡formed£»



further¡¡what¡¡we¡¡must¡¡look¡¡for¡¡when¡¡a¡¡refuting¡¡and¡¡establishing



propositions£»¡¡and¡¡how¡¡we¡¡should¡¡investigate¡¡a¡¡given¡¡problem¡¡in¡¡any



branch¡¡of¡¡inquiry£»¡¡also¡¡by¡¡what¡¡means¡¡we¡¡shall¡¡obtain¡¡principles



appropriate¡¡to¡¡each¡¡subject¡£¡¡Since¡¡some¡¡syllogisms¡¡are¡¡universal£»



others¡¡particular£»¡¡all¡¡the¡¡universal¡¡syllogisms¡¡give¡¡more¡¡than¡¡one



result£»¡¡and¡¡of¡¡particular¡¡syllogisms¡¡the¡¡affirmative¡¡yield¡¡more¡¡than



one£»¡¡the¡¡negative¡¡yield¡¡only¡¡the¡¡stated¡¡conclusion¡£¡¡For¡¡all



propositions¡¡are¡¡convertible¡¡save¡¡only¡¡the¡¡particular¡¡negative£º¡¡and



the¡¡conclusion¡¡states¡¡one¡¡definite¡¡thing¡¡about¡¡another¡¡definite¡¡thing¡£



Consequently¡¡all¡¡syllogisms¡¡save¡¡the¡¡particular¡¡negative¡¡yield¡¡more



than¡¡one¡¡conclusion£»¡¡e¡£g¡£¡¡if¡¡A¡¡has¡¡been¡¡proved¡¡to¡¡to¡¡all¡¡or¡¡to¡¡some¡¡B£»



then¡¡B¡¡must¡¡belong¡¡to¡¡some¡¡A£º¡¡and¡¡if¡¡A¡¡has¡¡been¡¡proved¡¡to¡¡belong¡¡to¡¡no



B£»¡¡then¡¡B¡¡belongs¡¡to¡¡no¡¡A¡£¡¡This¡¡is¡¡a¡¡different¡¡conclusion¡¡from¡¡the



former¡£¡¡But¡¡if¡¡A¡¡does¡¡not¡¡belong¡¡to¡¡some¡¡B£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡not¡¡necessary¡¡that¡¡B



should¡¡not¡¡belong¡¡to¡¡some¡¡A£º¡¡for¡¡it¡¡may¡¡possibly¡¡belong¡¡to¡¡all¡¡A¡£



¡¡¡¡This¡¡then¡¡is¡¡the¡¡reason¡¡common¡¡to¡¡all¡¡syllogisms¡¡whether¡¡universal



or¡¡particular¡£¡¡But¡¡it¡¡is¡¡possible¡¡to¡¡give¡¡another¡¡reason¡¡concerning



those¡¡which¡¡are¡¡universal¡£¡¡For¡¡all¡¡the¡¡things¡¡that¡¡are¡¡subordinate



to¡¡the¡¡middle¡¡term¡¡or¡¡to¡¡the¡¡conclusion¡¡may¡¡be¡¡proved¡¡by¡¡the¡¡same



syllogism£»¡¡if¡¡the¡¡former¡¡are¡¡placed¡¡in¡¡the¡¡middle£»¡¡the¡¡latter¡¡in¡¡the



conclusion£»¡¡e¡£g¡£¡¡if¡¡the¡¡conclusion¡¡AB¡¡is¡¡proved¡¡through¡¡C£»¡¡whatever¡¡is



subordinate¡¡to¡¡B¡¡or¡¡C¡¡must¡¡accept¡¡the¡¡predicate¡¡A£º¡¡for¡¡if¡¡D¡¡is



included¡¡in¡¡B¡¡as¡¡in¡¡a¡¡whole£»¡¡and¡¡B¡¡is¡¡included¡¡in¡¡A£»¡¡then¡¡D¡¡will¡¡be



included¡¡in¡¡A¡£¡¡Again¡¡if¡¡E¡¡is¡¡included¡¡in¡¡C¡¡as¡¡in¡¡a¡¡whole£»¡¡and¡¡C¡¡is



included¡¡in¡¡A£»¡¡then¡¡E¡¡will¡¡be¡¡included¡¡in¡¡A¡£¡¡Similarly¡¡if¡¡the



syllogism¡¡is¡¡negative¡£¡¡In¡¡the¡¡second¡¡figu

·µ»ØĿ¼ ÉÏÒ»Ò³ ÏÂÒ»Ò³ »Øµ½¶¥²¿ ÔÞ£¨1£© ²È£¨2£©

Äã¿ÉÄÜϲ»¶µÄ