philosophy of right-第34章

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！


stage　are　likewise　the　property　and　product　of　the　needs　and　wills　of　others；　and
＇b＇　labour　and　effort；　the　middle　term　between　the　subjective　and　the　objective。
The　aim　here　is　the　satisfaction　of　subjective　particularity；　but　the　universal
asserts　itself　in　the　bearing　which　this　satisfaction　has　on　the　needs　of　others　and
their　free　arbitrary　wills。　The　show　of　rationality　thus　produced　in　this　sphere　of
finitude　is　the　Understanding；　and　this　is　the　aspect　which　is　of　most　importance
in　considering　this　sphere　and　which　itself　constitutes　the　reconciling　element
within　it。　

Remark：　Political　economy　is　the　science　which　starts　from　this　view　of　needs　and　labour　but
then　has　the　task　of　explaining　mass…relationships　and　mass…movements　in　their　complexity　and
their　qualitative　and　quantitative　character。　This　is　one　of　the　sciences　which　have　arisen　out　of　the
conditions　of　the　modern　world。　Its　development　affords　the　interesting　spectacle　（as　in　Smith；
Say；　and　Ricardo）　of　thought　working　upon　the　endless　mass　of　details　which　confront　it　at　the
outset　and　extracting　therefrom　the　simple　principles　of　the　thing；　the　Understanding　effective　in　the
thing　and　directing　it。　It　is　to　find　reconciliation　here　to　discover　in　the　sphere　of　needs　this　show　of
rationality　lying　in　the　thing　and　effective　there；　but　if　we　look　at　it　from　the　opposite　point　of　view；
this　is　the　field　in　which　the　Understanding　with　its　subjective　aims　and　moral　fancies　vents　its
discontent　and　moral　frustration。　

Addition：　There　are　certain　universal　needs　such　as　food；　drink；　clothing；　&c。；　and　it　depends
entirely　on　accidental　circumstances　how　these　are　satisfied。　The　fertility　of　the　soil　varies　from
place　to　place；　harvests　vary　from　year　to　year；　one　man　is　industrious；　another　indolent。　But　this
medley　of　arbitrariness　generates　universal　characteristics　by　its　own　working；　and　this　apparently
scattered　and　thoughtless　sphere　is　upheld　by　a　necessity　which　automatically　enters　it。　To
discover　this　necessary　element　here　is　the　object　of　political　economy；　a　science　which　is　a　credit
to　thought　because　it　finds　laws　for　a　mass　of　accidents。　It　is　an　interesting　spectacle　here　to　see　all
chains　of　activity　leading　back　to　the　same　point；　particular　spheres　of　action　fall　into　groups；
influence　others；　and　are　helped　or　hindered　by　others。　The　most　remarkable　thing　here　is　this
mutual　interlocking　of　particulars；　which　is　what　one　would　least　expect　because　at　first　sight
everything　seems　to　be　given　over　to　the　arbitrariness　of　the　individual；　and　it　has　a　parallel　in　the
solar　system　which　displays　to　the　eye　only　irregular　movements；　though　its　laws　may　none　the　less
be　ascertained。　

　　（a）　The　Kind　of　Need　and　Satisfaction　＇typical　of　civil　society＇　
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　190。

An　animal’s　needs　and　its　ways　and　means　of　satisfying　them　are　both　alike
restricted　in　scope。　Though　man　is　subject　to　this　restriction　too；　yet　at　the　same
time　he　evinces　his　transcendence　of　it　and　his　universality；　first　by　the
multiplication　of　needs　and　means　of　satisfying　them；　and　secondly　by　the
differentiation　and　division　of　concrete　need　into　single　parts　and　aspects　which　in
turn　become　different　needs；　particularised　and　so　more　abstract。　

Remark：　In　＇abstract＇　right；　what　we　had　before　us　was　the　person；　in　the　sphere　of　morality；
the　subject；　in　the　family；　the　family…member；　in　civil　society　as　a　whole；　the　burgher　or　bourgeois。
Here　at　the　standpoint　of　needs　（compare　Remark　to　§　123）　what　we　have　before　us　is　the
composite　idea　which　we　call　man。　Thus　this　is　the　first　time；　and　indeed　properly　the　only　time；　to
speak　of　man　in　this　sense。　

Addition：　An　animal　is　restricted　to　particularity。　It　has　its　instincts　and　means　of　satisfying　them；
means　which　are　limited　and　which　it　cannot　overstep。　Some　insects　are　parasitic　on　a　certain　kind
of　plant；　some　animals　have　a　wider　range　and　can　live　in　different　climates；　but　there　is　always　a
restriction　preventing　them　from　having　the　range　open　to　man。　The　need　of　shelter　and　clothing；
the　necessity　of　cooking　his　food　to　make　it　fit　to　eat　and　to　overcome　its　natural　rawness；　both
mean　that　man　has　less　comfort　than　an　animal；　and　indeed；　as　mind；　he　ought　to　have　less。
Intelligence；　with　its　grasp　of　distinctions；　multiplies　these　human　needs；　and　since　taste　and　utility
become　criteria　of　judgment；　even　the　needs　themselves　are　affected　thereby。　Finally；　it　is　no
longer　need　but　opinion　which　has　to　be　satisfied；　and　it　is　just　the　educated　man　who　analyses　the
concrete　into　its　particulars。　The　very　multiplication　of　needs　involves　a　check　on　desire；　because
when　many　things　are　in　I　use；　the　urge　to　obtain　any　one　thing　which　might　be　needed　is　less
strong；　and　this　is　a　sign　that　want　altogether　is　not　so　imperious。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　191。

Similarly；　the　means　to　particularised　needs　and　all　the　ways　of　satisfying　these
are　themselves　divided　and　multiplied　and　so　in　turn　become　proximate　ends　and
abstract　needs。　This　multiplication　goes　on　ad　infinitum；　taken　as　a　whole；　it　is
refinement；　i。e。　a　discrimination　between　these　multiplied　needs；　and　judgment　on
the　suitability　of　means　to　their　ends。　

Addition：　What　the　English　call　‘comfort’　is　something　inexhaustible　and　illimitable。　＇Others
can　discover　to　you　that　what　you　take　to　be＇　comfort　at　any　stage　is　discomfort；　and　these
discoveries　never　come　to　an　end。　Hence　the　need　for　greater　comfort　does　not　exactly　arise
within　you　directly；　it　is　suggested　to　you　by　those　who　hope　to　make　a　profit　from　its　creation。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　192。

Needs　and　means；　as　things　existent　realiter；　become　something　which　has　being
for　others　by　whose　needs　and　labour　satisfaction　for　all　alike　is　conditioned。
When　needs　and　means　become　abstract　in　quality　（see　§　191）；　abstraction　is
also　a　character　of　the　reciprocal　relation　of　individuals　to　one　another。　This
abstract　character；　universality；　is　the　character　of　being　recognised　and　is　the
moment　which　makes　concrete；　i。e。　social；　the　isolated　and　abstract　needs　and
their　ways　and　means　of　satisfaction。　

Addition：　The　fact　that　I　must　direct　my　conduct　by　reference　to　others　introduces　here　the
form　of　universality。　It　is　from　others　that　I　acquire　the　means　of　satisfaction　and　I　must　accordingly
accept　their　views。　At　the　same　time；　however；　I　am　compelled　to　produce　means　for　the
satisfaction　of　others。　We　play　into　each　other’s　hands　and　so　hang　together。　To　this　extent
everything　private　becomes　something　social。　In　dress　fashions　and　hours　of　meals；　there　are
certain　conventions　which　we　have　to　accept　because　in　these　things　it　is　not　worth　the　trouble　to　I
insist　on　displaying　one’s　own　discernment。　The　wisest　thing　here　is　to　do　as　others　do。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　193。

This　social　moment　thus　becomes　a　particular　end…determinant　for　means　in
themselves　and　their　acquisition；　as　well　as　for　the　manner　in　which　needs　are
satisfied。　Further；　it　directly　involves　the　demand　for　equality　of　satisfaction　with
others。　The　need　for　this　equality　and　for　emulation；　which　is　the　equalising　of
oneself　with　others；　as　well　as　the　other　need　also　present　here；　the　need　of　the
particular　to　assert　itself　in　some　distinctive　way；　become　themselves　a　fruitful
source　of　the　multiplication　of　needs　and　their　expansion。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　194。

Since　in　social　needs；　as　the　conjunction　of　immediate　or　natural　needs　with
mental　needs　arising　from　ideas；　it　is　needs　of　the　latter　type　which　because　of
their　universality　make　themselves　preponderant；　this　social　moment　has　in　it　the
aspect　of　liberation；　i。e。　the　strict　natural　necessity　of　need　is　obscured　and　man　is
concerned　with　his　own　opinion；　indeed　with　an　opinion　which　is　universal；　and
with　a　necessity　of　his　own　making　alone；　instead　of　with　an　external　necessity；
an　inner　contingency；　and　mere　caprice。　

Remark：　The　idea　has　been　advanced　that　in　respect　of　his　needs　man　lived　in　freedom　in　the
so…called　‘state　of　nature’　when　his　needs　were　supposed　to　be　confined　to　what　are　known　as
the　simple　necessities　of　nature；　and　when　he　required　for　their　satisfaction　only　the　means　which
the　accidents　of　nature　directly　assured　to　him。　This　view　takes　no　account　of　the　moment　of
liberation　intrinsic　to　labour；　on　which　see　the　following　Paragraphs。　And　apart　from　this；　it　is　false；
because　to　be　confined　to　mere　physical　needs　as　such　and　their　direct　satisfaction　would　simply
be　the　condition　in　which　the　mental　is　plunged　in　the　natural　and　so　would　be　one　of　savagery　and
unfreedom；　while　freedom　itself　is　to　be　found　only　in　the　reflection　of　mind　into　itself；　in　mind’s
distinction　from　nature；　and　in　the　reflex　of　mind　in　nature。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　195。

This　liberation　is　abstract　since　the　particularity　of　the　ends　remains　their　basic
content。　When　social　conditions　tend　to　multiply　and　subdivide　needs；　means；　and
enjoyments　indefinitely　—　a　process　which；　like　the　distinction　between　natural
and　refined　needs；　has　no　qualitative　limits　—　this　is　luxury。　In　this　same　process；
however；　dependence　and　want　increase　ad　infinitum；　and　the　material　to　meet
these　is　permanently　barred　to　the　needy　man　because　it　consists　of　external
objects　with　the　special　character　of　being　property；　the　embodiment　of　the　free
will　of　others；　and　hence　from　his　point　of　view　its　recalcitrance　is　absolute。　

Addition：　The　entire　Cynical　mode　of　life　adopted　by　Diogenes　was　nothing　more　or　less　than　a
product　of　Athenian　social　life；　and　what　determined　it　was　the　way　of　thinking　against　which　his
whole　manner　protested。　Hence　it　was　not　independent　of　social　conditions　but　simply　their　result；
it　was　itself　a　rude　product　of　luxury。　When　luxury　is　at　its　height；　distress　and　depravity　are
equally　extreme；　and　in　such　circumstances　Cynicism　is　the　outcome　of　opposition　to　refinement。　

　　　　　　　　　　（b）　The　Kind　of　Labour　＇typical　of　civil　society＇
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　196。

The　means　of　acquiring　and　preparing　the　particularised　means　appropriate　to　our
similarly　particularised　needs　is　labour。　Through　labour　the　raw　material　directly
supplied　by　nature　is　specifically　adapted　to　these　numerous　ends　by　all　sorts　of
different　processes。　Now　this　formative　change　confers　value　on　means　and　gives
them　their　utility；　and　hence　man　in　what　he　consumes　is　mainly　concerned　with
the　products　of　men。　It　is　the　products　of　human　effort　which　man　consumes。　

Addition：　There　is　hardly　any　raw　material　which　does　not　need　to　be　worked　on　before　use。
Even　air　has　to　be　worked　for　because　we　have　to　warm　it。　Water　is　perhaps　the　only　exception；
because　we　can　drink　it　as　we　find　it。　It　is　by　the　sweat　of　his　brow　and　the　toil　of　his　hands　that
man　obtains　the　means　to　satisfy　his　needs。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　197。

The　multiplicity　of　objects　and　situations　which　excite　interest　is　the　stage　on
which　theoretical　education　develops。　This　education　consists　in　possessing　not
simply　a　multiplicity　of　ideas　and