philosophy of right-第35章

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which　theoretical　education　develops。　This　education　consists　in　possessing　not
simply　a　multiplicity　of　ideas　and　facts；　but　also　a　flexibility　and　rapidity　of　mind；
ability　to　pass　from　one　idea　to　another；　to　grasp　complex　and　general　relations；
and　so　on。　It　is　the　education　of　the　understanding　in　every　way；　and　so　also　the
building　up　of　language。　Practical　education；　acquired　through　working；　consists
first　in　the　automatically　recurrent　need　for　something　to　do　and　the　habit　of
simply　being　busy；　next；　in　the　strict　adaptation　of　one’s　activity　according　not
only　to　the　nature　of　the　material　worked　on；　but　also；　and　especially；　to　the
pleasure　of　other　workers；　and　finally；　in　a　habit；　produced　by　this　discipline；　of
objective　activity　and　universally　recognised　aptitudes。　

Addition：　The　savage　is　lazy　and　is　distinguished　from　the　educated　man　by　his　brooding
stupidity；　because　practical　education　is　just　education　in　the　need　and　habit　of　being　busy。　A
clumsy　man　always　produces　a　result　he　does　not　intend；　he　is　not　master　of　his　own　job。　The
skilled　worker；　on　the　other　hand；　may　be　said　to　be　the　man　who　produces　the　thing　as　it　ought　to
be　and　who　hits　the　nail　on　the　head　without　shrinking　（keine　Spr？digkeit　in　seinem　subjektiven
Tun　gegen　den　Zweck　findet）。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　198。

The　universal　and　objective　element　in　labour；　on　the　other　hand；　lies　in　the
abstracting　process　which　effects　the　subdivision　of　needs　and　means　and　thereby
eo　ipso　subdivides　production　and　brings　about　the　division　of　labour。　By　this
division；　the　labour　of　the　individual　becomes　less　complex；　and　consequently　his
skill　at　his　section　of　the　job　increases；　like　his　output。　At　the　same　time；　this
abstraction　of　one　man’s　skill　and　means　of　production　from　another’s
completes　and　makes　necessary　everywhere　the　dependence　of　men　on　one
another　and　their　reciprocal　relation　in　the　satisfaction　of　their　other　needs。
Further；　the　abstraction　of　one　man’s　production　from　another’s　makes　labour
more　and　more　mechanical；　until　finally　man　is　able　to　step　aside　and　install
machines　in　his　place。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　（c）　Capital　＇and　class…divisions＇
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　199。

When　men　are　thus　dependent　on　one　another　and　reciprocally　related　to　one
another　in　their　labour　and　the　satisfaction　of　their　needs；　subjective　self…seeking
turns　into　a　contribution　to　the　satisfaction　of　the　needs　of　everyone　else。　That　is
to　say；　by　a　dialectical　advance；　subjective　self…seeking　turns　into　the　mediation　of
the　particular　through　the　universal；　with　the　result　that　each　man　in　earning；
producing；　and　enjoying　on　his　own　account　is　eo　ipso　producing　and　earning　for
the　enjoyment　of　everyone　else。　The　compulsion　which　brings　this　about　is　rooted
in　the　complex　interdependence　of　each　on　all；　and　it　now　presents　itself　to　each
as　the　universal　permanent　capital　（see　§　170）　which　gives　each　the　opportunity；
by　the　exercise　of　his　education　and　skill；　to　draw　a　share　from　it　and　so　be
assured　of　his　livelihood；　while　what　he　thus　earns　by　means　of　his　labour
maintains　and　increases　the　general　capital。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　200。

A　particular　man’s　resources；　or　in　other　words　his　opportunity　of　sharing　in　the
general　resources；　are　conditioned；　however；　partly　by　his　own　unearned　principal
（his　capital）；　and　partly　by　his　skill；　this　in　turn　is　itself　dependent　not　only　on　his
capital；　but　also　on　accidental　circumstances　whose　multiplicity　introduces
differences　in　the　development　of　natural；　bodily；　and　mental　characteristics；
which　were　already　in　themselves　dissimilar。　In　this　sphere　of　particularity；　these
differences　are　conspicuous　in　every　direction　and　on　every　level；　and；　together
with　the　arbitrariness　and　accident　which　this　sphere　contains　as　well；　they　have
as　their　inevitable　consequence　disparities　of　individual　resources　and　ability。　

Remark：　The　objective　right　of　the　particularity　of　mind　is　contained　in　the　Idea。　Men　are　made
unequal　by　nature；　where　inequality　is　in　its　element；　and　in　civil　society　the　right　of　particularity　is
so　far　from。　annulling　this　natural　inequality　that　it　produces　it　out　of　mind　and　raises　it　to　an
inequality　of　skill　and　resources；　and　even　to　one　of　moral　and　intellectual　attainment。　To　oppose
to　this　right　a　demand　for　equality　is　a　folly　of　the　Understanding　which　takes　as　real　and　rational
its　abstract　equality　and　its　‘ought…to…be’。　

This　sphere　of　particularity；　which　fancies　itself　the　universal；　is　still　only　relatively　identical　with　the
universal；　and　consequently　it　still　retains　in　itself　the　particularity　of　nature；　i。e。　arbitrariness；　or　in
other　words　the　relics　of　the　state　of　nature。　Further；　it　is　reason；　immanent　in　the　restless　system
of　human　needs；　which　articulates　it　into　an　organic　whole　with　different　members　（see　the
following　§）。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　201。

The　infinitely　complex；　criss…cross；　movements　of　reciprocal　production　and
exchange；　and　the　equally　infinite　multiplicity　of　means　therein　employed；　become
crystallised；　owing　to　the　universality　inherent　in　their　content；　and　distinguished
into　general　groups。　As　a　result；　the　entire　complex　is　built　up　into　particular
systems　of　needs；　means；　and　types　of　work　relative　to　these　needs；　modes　of
satisfaction　and　of　theoretical　and　practical　education；　i。e。　into　systems；　to　one　or
other　of　which　individuals　are　assigned　—　in　other　words；　into　class…divisions。　

Addition：　The　ways　and　means　of　sharing　in　the　capital　of　society　are　left　to　each　man’s
particular　choice；　but　the　subdivision　of　civil　society　into　different　general　branches　is　a　necessity。
The　family　is　the　first　precondition　of　the　state；　but　class　divisions　are　the　second。　The　importance
of　the　latter　is　due　to　the　fact　that　although　private　persons　are　self…seeking；　they　are　compelled　to
direct　their　attention　to　others。　Here　then　is　the　root　which　connects　self…seeking　to　the　universal；
i。e。　to　the　state；　whose　care　it　must　be　that　this　tie　is　a　hard　and　fast　one。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　202。

The　classes　are　specifically　determined　in　accordance　with　the　concept　as　

　　　　　（a）　the　substantial　or　immediate　＇or　agricultural＇　class；　
　　　　　（b）　the　reflecting　or　formal　＇or　business＇　class；　and　finally；
　　　　　（c）　the　universal　class　＇the　class　of　civil　servants＇。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　203。

（a）　The　substantial　＇or　agricultural＇　class　has　its　capital　in　the　natural　products　of
the　soil　which　it　cultivates　—　soil　which　is　capable　of　exclusively　private
ownership　and　which　demands　formation　in　an　objective　way　and　not　mere
haphazard　exploitation。　In　face　of　the　connection　of　＇agricultural＇　labour　and　its
fruits　with　separate　and　fixed　times　of　the　year；　and　the　dependence　of　harvests
on　the　variability　of　natural　processes；　the　aim　of　need　in　this　class　turns　into
provision　for　the　future；　but　owing　to　the　conditions　here；　the　agricultural　mode　of
subsistence　remains　one　which　owes　comparatively　little　to　reflection　and
independence　of　will；　and　this　mode　of　life　is　in　general　such　that　this　class　has
the　substantial　disposition　of　an　ethical　life　which　is　immediate；　resting　on　family
relationship　and　trust。　

Remark：　The　real　beginning　and　original　foundation　of　states　has　been　rightly　ascribed　to　the
introduction　of　agriculture　along　with　marriage；　because　the　principle　of　agriculture　brings　with　it
the　formation　of　the　land　and　consequentially　exclusively　private　property　（compare　Remark　to　§
170）；　the　nomadic　life　of　savages；　who　seek　their　livelihood　from　place　to　place；　it　brings　back　to
the　tranquillity　of　private　rights　and　the　assured　satisfaction　of　their　needs。　Along　with　these
changes；　sexual　love　is　restricted　to　marriage；　and　this　bond　in　turn　grows　into　an　enduring　league；
inherently　universal；　while　needs　expand　into　care　for　a　family；　and　personal　possessions　into
family　goods。　Security；　consolidation；　lasting　satisfaction　of　needs；　and　so　forth　—　things　which　are
the　most　obvious　recommendations　of　marriage　and　agriculture　—　are　nothing　but　forms　of
universality；　modes　in　which　rationality；　the　final　end　and　aim；　asserts　itself　in　these　spheres。　

In　this　matter；　nothing　is　of　more　interest　than　the　ingenious　and　learned　explanations　which　my
distinguished　friend；　Herr　Creuzer；　has　given　of　the　agrarian　festivals；　images；　and　sanctuaries　of
the　ancients。　He　shows　that　it　was　because　the　ancients　themselves　had　become　conscious　of　the
divine　origin　of　agriculture　and　other　institutions　associated　with　it　that　they　held　them　in　such
religious　veneration。　

In　course　of　time；　the　character　of　this　class　as　‘substantial’　undergoes　modifications　through　the
working　of　the　civil　law；　in　particular　the　administration　of　justice；　as　well　as　through　the　working　of
education；　instruction；　and　religion。　These　modifications；　which　occur　in　the　other　classes　also；　do
not　affect　the　substantial　content　of　the　class　but　only　its　form　and　the　development　of　its　power　of
reflection。　

Addition：　In　our　day　agriculture　is　conducted　on　methods　devised　by　reflective　thinking；　i。e。　like
a　factory。　This　has　given　it　a　character　like　that　of　industry　and　contrary　to　its　natural　one。　Still；　the
agricultural　class　will　always　retain　a　mode　of　life　which　is　patriarchal　and　the　substantial　frame　of
mind　proper　to　such　a　life。　The　member　of　this　class　accepts　unreflectively　what　is　given　him　and
takes　what　he　gets；　thanking　God　for　it　and　living　in　faith　and　confidence　that　this　goodness　will
continue。　What　comes　to　him　suffices　him；　once　it　is　consumed；　more　comes　again。　This　is　the
simple　attitude　of　mind　not　concentrated　on　the　struggle　for　riches。　It　may　be　described　as　the
attitude　of　the　old　nobility　which　just　ate　what　there　was。　So　far　as　this　class　is　concerned；　nature
does　the　major　part；　while　individual　effort　is　secondary。　In　the　business　class；　however；　it　is
intelligence　which　is　the　essential　thing；　and　natural　products　can　be　treated　only　as　raw　materials。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　204。

（b）　The　business　class　has　for　its　task　the　adaptation　of　raw　materials；　and　for　its
means　of　livelihood　it　is　thrown　back　on　its　work；　on　reflection　and　intelligence；
and　essentially　on　the　mediation　of　one　man’s　needs　and　labour　with　those　of
others。　For　what　this　class　produces　and　enjoys；　it　has　mainly　itself；　its　own
industry；　to　thank。　The　task　of　this　class　is　subdivided　into　

　　　　　＇a＇　work　to　satisfy　single　needs　in　a　comparatively　concrete　way　and　to
　　　　　supply　single　orders　—　craftsmanship；　
　　　　　＇b＇　work　of　a　more　abstract　kind；　mass…production　to　satisfy　single　needs；
　　　　　but　needs　in　more　universal　demand　—　manufacture；
　　　　　＇c＇　the　business　of　exchange；　whereby　separate　utilities　are　exchanged　the
　　　　　one　for　the　other；　principally　through　the　use　of　the　universal　medium　of
　　　　　exchange；　money；　which　actualises　the　abstract　value　of　all　commodities　—
　　　　　trade。　

Addition：　In　the　business　class；　the　individual　is　thrown　back　on　himself；　and　this　feeling　of
self…hood　is　most　intimatel