philosophy of right-第49章

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doctrinal　instruction；　that　the　state　should　not　only　allow　the　church　to　do　as　it　likes　with　complete
freedom；　but　that　it　should　pay　unconditional　respect　to　the　church's　doctrines　as　doctrines；
whatever　their　character；　because　their　determination　is　supposed　to　be　the　task　of　the　church
alone。　The　church　bases　this　claim　on　the　wide　ground　that　the　whole　domain　of　mind　（Geist）　is　its
property。　But　science　and　all　types　of　knowledge　also　have　a　footing　in　that　domain　and；　like　a
church；　they　build　themselves　into　a　whole　with　a　guiding　principle　of　its　own；　and；　with　even　better
justification；　may　regard　themselves　as　occupying　the　position　which　the　church　claims。　Hence
science　also　may　in　the　same　way　demand　to　be　independent　of　the　state；　which　is　then　supposed
to　be　a　mere　means　with　the　task　of　providing　for　science　as　though　science　were　an　end　in　itself。　

Further；　for　determining　the　relation　between　church　and　state；　it　makes　no　difference　whether　the
leaders　of　congregations　or　individuals　ordained　to　the　service　of　the　church　feel　impelled　to
withdraw　from　the　state　and　lead　a　sort　of　secluded　life　of　their　own；　so　that　only　the　other　church
members　are　subject　to　the　state's　control；　or　whether　they　remain　within　the　state　except　in　their
capacity　as　ecclesiastics；　a　capacity　which　they　take　to　be　but　one　side　of　their　life。　the　most
striking　thing　about　such　a　…　conception　of　the　church's　relation　to　the　state　is　that　it　implies　the　idea
…　that　the　state's　specific　function　consists　in　protecting　and　securing　everyone's　life；　property；　and
caprice；　in　so　far　as　these　do　not　encroach　upon　the　life；　property；　and　caprice　of　others。　The　state
from　this　point　of　view　is　treated　simply　as　an　organisation　to　satisfy　men's　necessities。　In　this　way
the　element　of　absolute　truth；　of　mind　in　its　higher　development；　is　placed；　as　subjective　religious
feeling　or　theoretical　science；　beyond　the　reach　of　the　state。　The　state；　as　the　laity　pure　and　simple；
is　confined　to　paying　its　respects　to　this　element　and　so　is　entirely　deprived　of　any　strictly　ethical
character。　Now　it　is；　of　course；　a　matter　of　history　that　in　times　and　under　conditions　of　barbarism；
all　higher　forms　of　intellectual　life　had　their　seat　only　in　the　church；　while　the　state　was　a　mere
mundane　rule　of　force；　caprice；　and　passion。　At　such　times　it　was　the　abstract　opposition　of　state
and　church　which　was　the　main　underlying　principle　of　history　（see　§　359）。　But　it　is　far　too　blind
and　shallow　a　proceeding　to　declare　that　this　situation　is　the　one　which　truly　corresponds　with　the
Idea。　The　development　of　this　Idea　has　proved　this　rather　to　be　the　truth；　that　mind；　as　free　and
rational；　is　implicitly　ethical；　while　the　Idea　in　its　truth　is　rationality　actualised；　and　this　it　is　which
exists　as　the　state。　Further；　this　Idea　has　made　it　no　less　clearly　evident　that　the　ethical　truth　in　it　is
present　to　conscious　thought　as　a　content　worked　up　into　the　form　of　universality；　i。e。　as　law　…　in
short；　that　the　state　knows　its　aims；　apprehends　and　gives　practical　proof　of　them　with　a　clear　…
cut　consciousness　and　in　accordance　with　principles。　Now；　as　I　said　earlier；　religion　has　the　truth
as　its　universal　subject…matter；　but　it　possesses　it　only　as　a　given　content　which　has　not　been
apprehended　in　its　fundamental　characteristics　as　a　result　of　thinking　and　the　use　of　concepts。
Similarly；　the　relation　of　the　individual　to　this　subject…matter　is　an　obligation　grounded　on　authority；
while　the　'witness　of　his　own　spirit　and　heart'；　i。e。　that　wherein　the　moment　of　freedom　resides；　is
faith　and　feeling。　It　is　philosophic　insight　which　sees　that　while　church　and　state　differ　in　form；　they
do　not　stand　opposed　in　content；　for　truth　and　rationality　are　the　content　of　both。　Thus　when　the
church　begins　to　teach　doctrines　（though　there　are　and　have　been　some　churches　with　a　ritual　only；
and　others　in　which　ritual　is　the　chief　thing；　while　doctrine　and　a　more　educated　consciousness　are
only　secondary）；　and　when　these　doctrines　touch　on　objective　principles；　on　thoughts　of　the　ethical
and　the　rational；　'then　their　expression　eo　ipso　brings　the　church　into　the　domain　of　the　state。　In
contrast　with　the　church's　faith　and　authority　in　matters　affecting　ethical　principles；　rightness；　laws；
institutions；　in　contrast　with　the　church's　subjective　conviction；　the　state　is　that　which　knows。　Its
principle　is　such　that　its　content　is　in　essence　no　longer　clothed　with　the　form　of　feeling　and　faith
but　is　determinate　thought。　

If　the　content　of　absolute　truth　appears　in　the　form　of　religion　as　a　particular　content；　i。e。　as　the
doctrines　peculiar　to　the　church　as　a　religious　community；　then　these　doctrines　remain　out　of　the
reach　of　the　state　（in　Protestantism　they　are　out　of　the　reach　of　priests　too　because；　as　there　is　no
laity　there；　so　there　is　no　priesthood　to　be　an　exclusive　depository　of　church　doctrine）。　Since
ethical　principles　and　the　organisation　of　the　state　in　general　are　drawn　into　the　domain　of　religion
and　not　only　may；　but　also　should；　be　established　by　reference　thereto；　this　reference　gives
religious　credentials　to　the　state　itself。　On　the　other　hand；　however；　the　state　retains　the　right　and
the　form　of　self…conscious；　objective；　rationality；　the　right　to　make　this　form　count　and　to　maintain
it　against　pretensions　springing　from　truth　in　a　subjective　dress；　no　matter　how　such　truth　may
girdle　itself　with　certitude　and　authority。　

The　state　is　universal　in　form；　a　form　whose　essential　principle　is　thought。　This　explains　why　it　was
in　the　state　that　freedom　of　thought　and　science　had　their　origin。　It　was　a　church；　on　the　other
hand；　which　burnt　Giordano　Bruno；　forced　Galileo　to　recant　on　his　knees　his　exposition　of　the
Copernican　view　of　the　solar　system；　and　so　forth。　

Footnote：　When　Galileo　published　the　discoveries'　about　the　phases　of　Venus；　&c。；　which　he　had　made
with　the　aid　of　the　telescope；　'he　showed　that　they　incontestably　proved　the　motion　of　the　earth。　But　this　idea
of　the　motion　of　the　earth　was　declared　heretical　by　an　assembly　of　Cardinals；　and　Galileo；　its　most　famous
advocate；　was　haled　before　the　Inquisition　and　compelled　to　recant　it；　under　pain　of　severe　imprisonment。　One
of　the　strongest　of　passions　is　the　love　of　truth　in　a　man　of　genius。　。。。　Convinced　of　the　motion　of　the　earth　as　a
result　of　his　own　observations；　Galileo　meditated　a　long　while　on　a　new　work　in　which　he　had　resolved　to
develop　all　the　proofs　in　its　favour。　But　in　order　at　the　same　time　to　escape　from　the　persecution　of　which
otherwise　he　would　inevitably　have　been　the　victim；　he　hit　upon　the　device　of　expounding　them　in　the　form　of
dialogues　between　three　speakers。。。。　It　is　obvious　enough　in　them　that　the　advantage　lies　with　the　advocate　of
the　Copernican　system；　but　since　Galileo　did　not　decide　between　the　speakers；　and　gave　as　much　weight　as
possible　to　the　objections　raised　by　the　partisans　of　Ptolemy；　he　might　well　have　expected　to　be　left　to　enjoy
undisturbed　the　peace　to　which　his　advanced　age　and　his　labours　had　entitled　him。。。。　In　his　seventieth　year　he
was　haled　once　more　before　the　tribunal　of　the　Inquisition。。。。　He　was　imprisoned　and　required　to　recant　his
opinions　a　second　time　under　threat　of　the　penalty　fixed　for　a　relapse　into　heresy。　。。。　He　was　made　to　sign　an
abjuration　in　the　following　terms：　〃I；　Galileo；　appearing　in　person　before　the　court　in　my　seventieth　year；
kneeling；　and　with　my　eyes　on　the　holy　Gospels　which　I　hold　in　my　hands；　abjure；　damn；　and　execrate　with　my
whole　heart　and　true　belief　the　absurd；　false；　and　heretical　doctrine　of　the　motion　of　the　earth。。　。　。〃　What　a
spectacle！　An　aged；　venerable　man；　famous　throughout　a　long　life　exclusively　devoted　to　the　study　of　nature；
abjuring　on　his　knees；　against　the　witness　of　his　own　conscience；　the　truth　which　he　had　demonstrated　so
convincingly！　By　the　judgement　of　the　Inquisition　he　was　condemned　to　perpetual　imprisonment。　A　year　later
he　was　set　at　liberty　through　the　intercession　of　the　Grand　Duke　of　Florence。　。　。　。　He　died　in　1642。　。　。　。　Europe
mourned　his　loss。　It　had　been　enlightened　by　his　labours　and　was　exasperated　by　the　judgement　passed　by　a
detested　tribunal　on　a　man　of　his　greatness。'　（Laplace：　Exposition　du　système　du　monde；　Book　V；　chap。　4。）　

Remark：　Science　too；　therefore；　has　its　place　on　the　side　of　the　state　since　it　has　one　element；　its
form；　in　common　with　the　state；　and　its　aim　is　knowledge；　knowledge　of　objective　truth　and
rationality　in　terms　of　thought。　Such　knowledge　may；　of　course；　fall　from　the　heights　of　science　into
opinion　and　deductive　argumentation；　and；　turning　its　attention　to　ethical　matters　and　the
organisation　of　the　state；　set　itself　against　their　basic　principles。　And　it　may　perhaps　do　this　while
making　for　this　opining　as　if　it　were　reason　and　the　right　of　subjective　self…consciousness　…　the
same　pretentious　claim　as　the　church　makes　for　its　own　sphere；　the　claim；　namely；　to　be　free　from
restraint　in　its　opinions　and　convictions。　

This　principle　of　the　subjectivity　of　knowing　has　been　dealt　with　above　（see　Remark　to　§　140）　…　It
is　here　only　necessary　to　add　a　note　on　the　twofold　attitude　of　the　state　to　this　opining。　On　the　one
hand；　in　so　far　as　opining　is　mere　opining；　a　purely　subjective　matter；　it　is　without　any　genuine
inherent　force　or　power；　plume　itself　as　it　may；　and　from　this　point　of　view　the　state　may　be　as
totally　indifferent　to　it　as　the　painter　who　sticks　to　the　three　primary　colours　on　his　palette　is
indifferent　to　the　academic　wisdom　which　tells　him　there　are　seven。　On　the　other　hand；　however；
when　this　opining　of　bad　principles　embodies　itself　in　a　general　organisation　corrosive　of　the　actual
order；　the　state　has　to　set　its　face　against　it　and　protect　objective　truth　and　the　principles　of　ethical
life　（and　it　must　do　the　same　in　face　of　the　formulae　of　unconditioned　subjectivity　if　these　have
proposed　to　take　the　starting　point　of　science　as　their　basis；　and　turn　state　educational　institutions
against　the　state　by　encouraging　them　to　make　against　it　claims　as　pretentious　as　those　of　a
church）；　while；　vice　versa；　in　face　of　a　church　claiming　unrestricted　and　unconditional　authority；　the
state　has　in　general　to　make　good　the　formal　right　of　self…consciousness　to　its　own　insight；　its　own
conviction；　and；　in　short；　its　own　thought　of　what　is　to　hold　good　as　objective　truth。　

Mention　may　also　be　made　of　the　'unity　of　state　and　church'　…　a　favourite　topic　of　modern
discussion　and　held　up　by　some　as　the　highest　of　ideals。　While　state　and　church　are　essentially　one
in　truth　of　principle　and　disposition；　it　is　no　less　essential　that；　despite　this　unity；　the　distinction
between　their　forms　of　consciousness　should　be　externalised　as　a　distinction　between　their　special
modes　of　existence。　This　often　desired　unity　of　church　and　state　is　found　under　oriental
despotisms；　but　an　oriental　despotism　is　not　a　state；　or　at　any　rate　not　the　self…conscious　form　of
state　which　is　alone　worthy　of　mind；　the　form　which　is　organically　developed　and　where　there　are
rights　and　a　free　ethical　life。　

Further；　if　the　state　is　to　come　into　existence　as　the　self…knowing　ethical　a