proposed roads to freedom(通往自由之路)-第8章
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C。：
Horses have hoofs to carry them over frost and snow； hair； to protect
them from wind and cold。 They eat grass and drink water； and fling up
their heels over the champaign。 Such is the real nature of horses。 Palatial
dwellings are of no use to them。
One day Po Lo appeared； saying： ‘‘I understand the management of
horses。''
So he branded them； and clipped them； and pared their hoofs； and put
halters on them； tying them up by the head and shackling them by the feet；
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and disposing them in stables； with the result that two or three in every ten
died。 Then he kept them hungry and thirsty； trotting them and galloping
them； and grooming； and trimming； with the misery of the tasselled bridle
before and the fear of the knotted whip behind； until more than half of
them were dead。
The potter says： ‘‘I can do what I will with Clay。 If I want it round； I
use compasses； if rectangular； a square。''
The carpenter says： ‘‘I can do what I will with wood。 If I want it
curved； I use an arc； if straight； a line。''
But on what grounds can we think that the natures of clay and wood
desire this application of compasses and square； of arc and line？
Nevertheless； every age extols Po Lo for his skill in managing horses； and
potters and carpenters for their skill with clay and wood。 Those who
govern the empire make the same mistake。
Now I regard government of the empire from quite a different point of
view。
The people have certain natural instincts：to weave and clothe
themselves； to till and feed themselves。 These are common to all humanity；
and all are agreed thereon。 Such instincts are called ‘‘Heaven…sent。''
And so in the days when natural instincts prevailed； men moved
quietly and gazed steadily。 At that time there were no roads over
mountains； nor boats； nor bridges over water。 All things were produced；
each for its own proper sphere。 Birds and beasts multiplied； trees and
shrubs grew up。 The former might be led by the hand； you could climb up
and peep into the raven's nest。 For then man dwelt with birds and beasts；
and all creation was one。 There were no distinctions of good and bad men。
Being all equally without knowledge； their virtue could not go astray。
Being all equally without evil desires； they were in a state of natural
integrity； the perfection of human existence。
But when Sages appeared； tripping up people over charity and
fettering them with duty to their neighbor； doubt found its way into the
world。 And then； with their gushing over music and fussing over ceremony；
the empire became divided against itself。＇11＇
＇11＇ ‘‘Musings of a Chinese Mystic。'' Selections from the Philosophy
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of Chuang Tzu。 With an Introduction by Lionel Giles； M。A。 （Oxon。）。
Wisdom of the East Series； John Murray； 1911。 Pages 66…68。
The modern Anarchism； in the sense in which we shall be concerned
with it； is associated with belief in the communal ownership of land and
capital； and is thus in an important respect akin to Socialism。 This doctrine
is properly called Anarchist Com… munism； but as it embraces practically
all modern Anarchism； we may ignore individualist Anarchism altogether
and concentrate attention upon the communistic form。 Socialism and
Anarchist Communism alike have arisen from the perception that private
capital is a source of tyranny by certain individuals over others。 Orthodox
Socialism believes that the individual will become free if the State
becomes the sole capitalist。 Anarchism； on the contrary； fears that in that
case the State might merely inherit the tyrannical propensities of the
private capitalist。 Accordingly； it seeks for a means of reconciling
communal ownership with the utmost possible diminution in the powers of
the State； and indeed ultimately with the complete abolition of the State。 It
has arisen mainly within the Socialist movement as its extreme left wing。
In the same sense in which Marx may be regarded as the founder of
modern Socialism； Bakunin may be regarded as the founder of Anarchist
Communism。 But Bakunin did not produce； like Marx； a finished and
systematic body of doctrine。 The nearest approach to this will be found in
the writings of his follower； Kropotkin。 In order to explain modern
Anarchism we shall begin with the life of Bakunin＇12＇ and the history of
his conflicts with Marx； and shall then give a brief account of Anarchist
theory as set forth partly in his writings； but more in those of
Kropotkin。＇13＇
＇12＇ An account of the life of Bakunin from the Anarchist standpoint
will be found in vol。 ii of the complete edition of his works： ‘‘Michel
Bakounine； OEuvres；'' Tome II。 Avec une notice biographique； des avant…
propos et des notes； par James Guillaume。 Paris； P。…V； Stock； editeur； pp。
v…lxiii。
＇13＇ Criticism of these theories will be reserved for Part II。
Michel Bakunin was born in 1814 of a Russian aristocratic family。
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His father was a diplomatist； who at the time of Bakunin's birth had retired
to his country estate in the Government of Tver。 Bakunin entered the
school of artillery in Petersburg at the age of fifteen； and at the age of
eighteen was sent as an ensign to a regiment stationed in the Government
of Minsk。 The Polish insurrection of 1880 had just been crushed。 ‘‘The
spectacle of terrorized Poland；'' says Guillaume； ‘‘acted powerfully on the
heart of the young officer； and contributed to inspire in him the horror of
despotism。'' This led him to give up the military career after two years'
trial。 In 1834 he resigned his commission and went to Moscow； where he
spent six years studying philosophy。 Like all philosophical students of that
period； he became a Hegelian； and in 1840 he went to Berlin to continue
his studies； in the hope of ultimately becoming a professor。 But after this
time his opinions underwent a rapid change。 He found it impossible to
accept the Hegelian maxim that whatever is； is rational； and in 1842 he
migrated to Dresden； where he became associated with Arnold Ruge； the
publisher of ‘‘Deutsche Jahrbuecher。'' By this time he had become a
revolutionary； and in the following year he incurred the hostility of the
Saxon Government。 This led him to go to Switzerland； where he came in
contact with a group of German Communists； but； as the Swiss police
importuned him and the Russian Government demanded his return； he
removed to Paris； where he remained from 1843 to 1847。 These years in
Paris were important in the formation of his outlook and opinions。 He
became acquainted with Proudhon； who exercised a considerable
influence on him； also with George Sand and many other well… known
people。 It was in Paris that he first made the acquaintance of Marx and
Engels； with whom he was to carry on a lifelong battle。 At a much later
period； in 1871； he gave the following account of his relations with Marx
at this time：
Marx was much more advanced than I was； as he remains to…day not
more advanced but incomparably more learned than I am。 I knew then
nothing of political economy。 I had not yet rid myself of metaphysical
abstractions； and my Socialism was only instinctive。 He； though younger
than I； was already an atheist； an instructed materialist； a well…considered
Socialist。 It was just at this time that he elaborated the first foundations of
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his present system。 We saw each other fairly often； for I respected him
much for his learning and his passionate and serious devotion （always
mixed； however； with personal vanity） to the cause of the proletariat； and I
sought eagerly his conversation； which was always instructive and clever；
when it was not inspired by a paltry hate； which； alas！ happened only too
often。 But there was never any frank intimacy between as。 Our
temperaments would not suffer it。 He called me a sentimental idealist； and
he was right； I called him a vain man； perfidious and crafty； and I also was
right。
Bakunin never succeeded in staying long in one place without
incurring the enmity of the authorities。 In November； 1847； as the result of
a speech praising the Polish rising of 1830； he was expelled from France at
the request of the Russian Embassy； which； in order to rob him of public
sympathy； spread the unfounded report that he had been an agent of the
Russian Government； but was no longer wanted because he had gone too
far。 The French Government； by calculated reticence； encouraged this
story； which clung to him more or less throughout his life。
Being compelled to leave France； he went to Brussels； where he
renewed acquaintance with Marx。 A letter of his； written at this time；
shows that he entertained already that bitter hatred for which afterward he
had so much reason。 ‘‘The Germans； artisans； Bornstedt； Marx and
Engelsand； above all； Marxare here； doing their ordinary mischief。
Vanity； spite； gossip； theoretical overbearingness and practical
pusillanimityreflections on life； action and simplicity； and complete
absence of life； action and simplicityliterary and argumentative artisans
and r
