what is property-第25章

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How　do　we　measure　the　value　of　land？　　By　its　product。　　If　a　piece　of　land　yields　one　thousand　francs；　we　say　that　at　five　per　cent。　it　is　worth　twenty　thousand　francs；　at　four　per　cent。　twenty…five　thousand　francs；　&c。；　which　means；　in　other　words；　that　in　twenty　or　twenty…five　years'　time　the　purchaser　would　recover　in　full　the　amount　originally　paid　for　the　land。　　If；　then；　after　a　certain　length　of　time；　the　price　of　a　piece　of　land　has　been　wholly　recovered；　why　does　the　purchaser　continue　to　be　proprietor？　　Because　of　the　right　of　occupancy；　in　the　absence　of　which　every　sale　would　be　a　redemption。

The　theory　of　appropriation　by　labor　is；　then；　a　contradiction　of　the　Code；　and　when　the　partisans　of　this　theory　pretend　to　explain　the　laws　thereby；　they　contradict　themselves。


〃If　men　succeed　in　fertilizing　land　hitherto　unproductive；　or　even　death…producing；　like　certain　swamps；　they　create　thereby　property　in　all　its　completeness。〃


What　good　does　it　do　to　magnify　an　expression；　and　play　with　equivocations；　as　if　we　expected　to　change　the　reality　thereby？　　THEY　CREATE　PROPERTY　IN　ALL　ITS　COMPLETENESS。　　You　mean　that　they　create　a　productive　capacity　which　formerly　did　not　exist；　but　this　capacity　cannot　be　created　without　material　to　support　it。　　The　substance　of　the　soil　remains　the　same；　only　its　qualities　and　modifications　are　changed。　　Man　has　created　every　thingevery　thing　save　the　material　itself。　　Now；　I　maintain　that　this　material　he　can　only　possess　and　use；　on　condition　of　permanent　labor；granting；　for　the　time　being；　his　right　of　property　in　things　which　he　has　produced。

This；　then；　is　the　first　point　settled：　property　in　product；　if　we　grant　so　much；　does　not　carry　with　it　property　in　the　means　of　production；　that　seems　to　me　to　need　no　further　demonstration。　　There　is　no　difference　between　the　soldier　who　possesses　his　arms；　the　mason　who　possesses　the　materials　committed　to　his　care；　the　fisherman　who　possesses　the　water；　the　hunter　who　possesses　the　fields　and　forests；　and　the　cultivator　who　possesses　the　lands：　all；　if　you　say　so；　are　proprietors　of　their　productsnot　one　is　proprietor　of　the　means　of　production。　　The　right　to　product　is　exclusivejus　in　re；　the　right　to　means　is　commonjus　ad　rem。　　　


％　5。That　Labor　leads　to　Equality　of　Property。


Admit；　however；　that　labor　gives　a　right　of　property　in　material。

Why　is　not　this　principle　universal？　　Why　is　the　benefit　of　this　pretended　law　confined　to　a　few　and　denied　to　the　mass　of　laborers？　　A　philosopher；　arguing　that　all　animals　sprang　up　formerly　out　of　the　earth　warmed　by　the　rays　of　the　sun；　almost　like　mushrooms；　on　being　asked　why　the　earth　no　longer　yielded　crops　of　that　nature；　replied：　　〃Because　it　is　old；　and　has　lost　its　fertility。〃　　Has　labor；　once　so　fecund；　likewise　become　sterile？　　Why　does　the　tenant　no　longer　acquire　through　his　labor　the　land　which　was　formerly　acquired　by　the　labor　of　the　proprietor？

〃Because；〃　they　say；　〃it　is　already　appropriated。〃　　That　is　no　answer。　　A　farm　yields　fifty　bushels　per　hectare；　the　skill　and　labor　of　the　tenant　double　this　product：　the　increase　is　created　by　the　tenant。　　Suppose　the　owner；　in　a　spirit　of　moderation　rarely　met　with；　does　not　go　to　the　extent　of　absorbing　this　product　by　raising　the　rent；　but　allows　the　cultivator　to　enjoy　the　results　of　his　labor；　even　then　justice　is　not　satisfied。　　The　tenant；　by　improving　the　land；　has　imparted　a　new　value　to　the　property；　he；　therefore；　has　a　right　to　a　part　of　the　property。　　If　the　farm　was　originally　worth　one　hundred　thousand　francs；　and　if　by　the　labor　of　the　tenant　its　value　has　risen　to　one　hundred　and　fifty　thousand　francs；　the　tenant；　who　produced　this　extra　value；　is　the　legitimate　proprietor　of　one…third　of　the　farm。　　M。　Ch。　Comte　could　not　have　pronounced　this　doctrine　false；　for　it　was　he　who　said：


〃Men　who　increase　the　fertility　of　the　earth　are　no　less　useful　to　their　fellow…men；　than　if　they　should　create　new　land。〃


Why；　then；　is　not　this　rule　applicable　to　the　man　who　improves　the　land；　as　well　as　to　him　who　clears　it？　　The　labor　of　the　former　makes　the　land　worth　one；　that　of　the　latter　makes　it　worth　two：　both　create　equal　values。　　Why　not　accord　to　both　equal　property？　　I　defy　any　one　to　refute　this　argument；　without　again　falling　back　on　the　right　of　first　occupancy。

〃But；〃　it　will　be　said；　〃even　if　your　wish　should　be　granted；　property　would　not　be　distributed　much　more　evenly　than　now。　　Land　does　not　go　on　increasing　in　value　for　ever；　after　two　or　three　seasons　it　attains　its　maximum　fertility。　　That　which　is　added　by　the　agricultural　art　results　rather　from　the　progress　of　science　and　the　diffusion　of　knowledge；　than　from　the　skill　of　the　cultivator。　　Consequently；　the　addition　of　a　few　laborers　to　the　mass　of　proprietors　would　be　no　argument　against　property。〃

This　discussion　would；　indeed；　prove　a　well…nigh　useless　one；　if　our　labors　culminated　in　simply　extending　land…privilege　and　industrial　monopoly；　in　emancipating　only　a　few　hundred　laborers　out　of　the　millions　of　proletaires。　　But　this　also　is　a　misconception　of　our　real　thought；　and　does　but　prove　the　general　lack　of　intelligence　and　logic。

If　the　laborer；　who　adds　to　the　value　of　a　thing；　has　a　right　of　property　in　it；　he　who　maintains　this　value　acquires　the　same　right。　　For　what　is　maintenance？　　It　is　incessant　addition；　continuous　creation。　　What　is　it　to　cultivate？　　It　is　to　give　the　soil　its　value　every　year；　it　is；　by　annually　renewed　creation；　to　prevent　the　diminution　or　destruction　of　the　value　of　a　piece　of　land。　　Admitting；　then；　that　property　is　rational　and　legitimate；admitting　that　rent　is　equitable　and　just；I　say　that　he　who　cultivates　acquires　property　by　as　good　a　title　as　he　who　clears；　or　he　who　improves；　and　that　every　time　a　tenant　pays　his　rent；　he　obtains　a　fraction　of　property　in　the　land　entrusted　to　his　care；　the　denominator　of　which　is　equal　to　the　proportion　of　rent　paid。　　Unless　you　admit　this；　you　fall　into　absolutism　and　tyranny；　you　recognize　class　privileges；　you　sanction　slavery。

Whoever　labors　becomes　a　proprietorthis　is　an　inevitable　deduction　from　the　acknowledged　principles　of　political　economy　and　jurisprudence。　　And　when　I　say　proprietor；　I　do　not　mean　simply　（as　do　our　hypocritical　economists）　proprietor　of　his　allowance；　his　salary；　his　wages；I　mean　proprietor　of　the　value　which　he　creates；　and　by　which　the　master　alone　profits。

As　all　this　relates　to　the　theory　of　wages　and　of　the　distribution　of　products；and　as　this　matter　never　has　been　even　partially　cleared　up；I　ask　permission　to　insist　on　it：　this　discussion　will　not　be　useless　to　the　work　in　hand。　　Many　persons　talk　of　admitting　working…people　to　a　share　in　the　products　and　profits；　but　in　their　minds　this　participation　is　pure　benevolence：　they　have　never　shownperhaps　never　suspectedthat　it　was　a　natural；　necessary　right；　inherent　in　labor；　and　inseparable　from　the　function　of　producer；　even　in　the　lowest　forms　of　his　work。

This　is　my　proposition：　　THE　LABORER　RETAINS；　EVEN　　AFTER　HE　HAS　RECEIVED　HIS　WAGES；　A　NATURAL　RIGHT　OF　PROPERTY　IN　THE　THING　WHICH　HE　HAS　PRODUCED。

I　again　quote　M。　Ch。　Comte：


〃Some　laborers　are　employed　in　draining　marshes；　in　cutting　down　trees　and　brushwood；in　a　word；　in　cleaning　up　the　soil。　　They　increase　the　value；　they　make　the　amount　of　property　larger；　they　are　paid　for　the　value　which　they　add　in　the　form　of　food　and　daily　wages：　it　then　becomes　the　property　of　the　capitalist。〃


The　price　is　not　sufficient：　the　labor　of　the　workers　has　created　a　value；　now　this　value　is　their　property。　　But　they　have　neither　sold　nor　exchanged　it；　and　you；　capitalist；　you　have　not　earned　it。　　That　you　should　have　a　partial　right　to　the　whole；　in　return　for　the　materials　that　you　have　furnished　and　the　provisions　that　you　have　supplied；　is　perfectly　just。　　You　contributed　to　the　production；　you　ought　to　share　in　the　enjoyment。　　But　your　right　does　not　annihilate　that　of　the　laborers；　who；　in　spite　of　you；　have　been　your　colleagues　in　the　work　of　production。　　Why　do　you　talk　of　wages？　　The　money　with　which　you　pay　the　wages　of　the　laborers　remunerates　them　for　only　a　few　years　of　the　perpetual　possession　which　they　have　abandoned　to　you。　　Wages　is　the　cost　of　the　daily　maintenance　and　refreshment　of　the　laborer。　　You　are　wrong　in　calling　it　the　price　of　a　sale。　　The　workingman　has　sold　nothing；　he　knows　neither　his　right；　nor　the　extent　of　the　concession　which　he　has　made　to　you；　nor　the　meaning　of　the　contract　which　you　pretend　to　have　made　with　him。　　On　his　side；　utter　ignorance；　on　yours；　error　and　surprise；　not　to　say　deceit　and　fraud。

Let　us　make　this　clearer　by　another　and　more　striking　example。

No　one　is　ignorant　of　the　difficulties　that　are　met　with　in　the　conversion　of　untilled　land　into　arable　and　productive　land。　　These　difficulties　are　so　great；　that　usually　an　isolated　man　would　perish　before　he　could　put　the　soil　in　a　condition　to　yield　him　even　the　most　meagre　living。　　To　that　end　are　needed　the　united　and　combined　efforts　of　society；　and　all　the　resources　of　industry。　　M。　Ch。　Comte　quotes　on　this　subject　numerous　and　well…　authenticated　facts；　little　thinking　that　he　is　amassing　testimony　against　his　own　system。

Let　us　suppose　that　a　colony　of　twenty　or　thirty　families　establishes　itself　in　a　wild　district；　covered　with　underbrush　and　forests；　and　from　which；　by　agreement；　the　natives　consent　to　withdraw。　　Each　one　of　these　families　possesses　a　moderate　but　sufficient　amount　of　capital；　of　such　a　nature　as　a　colonist　would　be　apt　to　choose；animals；　seeds；　tools；　and　a　little　money　and　food。　　The　land　having　been　divided；　each　one　settles　himself　as　comfortably　as　possible；　and　begins　to　clear　away　the　portion　allotted　to　him。　　But　after　a　few　weeks　of　fatigue；　such　as　they　never　before　have　known；　of　inconceivable　suffering；　of　ruinous　and　almost　useless　labor；　our　colonists　begin　to　complain　of　their　trade；　their　condition　seems　hard　to　them；　they　curse　their　sad　existence。

Suddenly；　one　of　the　shrewdest　among　them　kills　a　pig；　cures　a　part　of　the　meat；　and；　resolved　to　sacrifice　the　rest　of　his　provisions；　goes　to　find　his　companions　in　misery。　　〃Friends；〃　he　begins　in　a　very　benevolent　tone；　〃how　much　trouble　it　costs　you　to　do　a　little　work　and　live　uncomfortably！　　A　fortnight　of　labor　has　reduced　you　to　your　last　extremity！　。　。　。　　Let　us　make　an　arrangement　by　which　you　shall　all　profit。　　I　offer　you　provisions　and　wine：　you　shall　get　so　much　every　day；　we　will　work　together；　and；　zounds！　my　friends；　we　will　be　happy　and　contented！〃

Would　it　be　possible　for　empty　stomachs　to　resist　such　an　invitation？　　The　hungriest　of　them　follow　the　treacherous　tempter。　　They　go　to　work；　the　charm　of　society；　emulation；　joy；　and　mutual　assistance　double　their　strength；　the　work　can　be　seen　to　advance。　　Singing　and　laughing；　they　subdue　Nature。　　In　a　short　time；　the　soil　is　thoroughly　changed；　the　mellowed　earth　waits　only　for　the　seed。　　That　done；　the　proprietor　pays　his　laborers；　who；　on　going　away；　return　him　their　thanks；　and　grieve　that　the　happy　days　which　they　have　spent　with　him　are　over。

Others　follow　this　example；　always　with　the　same　success。　　Then；　these　installed；　the　res