what is property-第29章

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rroneous　opinions。

So；　in　every　exchange；　there　is　a　moral　obligation　that　neither　of　the　contracting　parties　shall　gain　at　the　expense　of　the　other；　that　is；　that；　to　be　legitimate　and　true；　commerce　must　be　exempt　from　all　inequality。　　This　is　the　first　condition　of　commerce。　　Its　second　condition　is；　that　it　be　voluntary；　that　is；　that　the　parties　act　freely　and　openly。

I　define；　then；　commerce　or　exchange　as　an　act　of　society。

The　negro　who　sells　his　wife　for　a　knife；　his　children　for　some　bits　of　glass；　and　finally　himself　for　a　bottle　of　brandy；　is　not　free。　　The　dealer　in　human　flesh；　with　whom　he　negotiates；　is　not　his　associate；　he　is　his　enemy。

The　civilized　laborer　who　bakes　a　loaf　that　he　may　eat　a　slice　of　bread；　who　builds　a　palace　that　he　may　sleep　in　a　stable；　who　weaves　rich　fabrics　that　he　may　dress　in　rags；　who　produces　every　thing　that　he　may　dispense　with　every　thing；is　not　free。　　His　employer；　not　becoming　his　associate　in　the　exchange　of　salaries　or　services　which　takes　place　between　them；　is　his　enemy。

The　soldier　who　serves　his　country　through　fear　instead　of　through　love　is　not　free；　his　comrades　and　his　officers；　the　ministers　or　organs　of　military　justice；　are　all　his　enemies。

The　peasant　who　hires　land；　the　manufacturer　who　borrows　capital；　the　tax…payer　who　pays　tolls；　duties；　patent　and　license　fees；　personal　and　property　taxes；　&c。；　and　the　deputy　who　votes　for　them；all　act　neither　intelligently　nor　freely。　　Their　enemies　are　the　proprietors；　the　capitalists；　the　government。

Give　men　liberty；　enlighten　their　minds　that　they　may　know　the　meaning　of　their　contracts；　and　you　will　see　the　most　perfect　equality　in　exchanges　without　regard　to　superiority　of　talent　and　knowledge；　and　you　will　admit　that　in　commercial　affairs；　that　is；　in　the　sphere　of　society；　the　word　superiority　is　void　of　sense。

Let　Homer　sing　his　verse。　　I　listen　to　this　sublime　genius　in　comparison　with　whom　I；　a　simple　herdsman；　an　humble　farmer；　am　as　nothing。　　What；　indeed；if　product　is　to　be　compared　with　product；are　my　cheeses　and　my　beans　in　the　presence　of　his　〃Iliad〃？　　But；　if　Homer　wishes　to　take　from　me　all　that　I　possess；　and　make　me　his　slave　in　return　for　his　inimitable　poem；　I　will　give　up　the　pleasure　of　his　lays；　and　dismiss　him。　　I　can　do　without　his　〃Iliad；〃　and　wait；　if　necessary；　for　the　〃AEneid。〃

Homer　cannot　live　twenty…four　hours　without　my　products。　　Let　him　accept；　then；　the　little　that　I　have　to　offer；　and　then　his　muse　may　instruct；　encourage；　and　console　me。

〃What！　do　you　say　that　such　should　be　the　condition　of　one　who　sings　of　gods　and　men？　　Alms；　with　the　humiliation　and　suffering　which　they　bring　with　them！what　barbarous　generosity！〃　。　。　。　　Do　not　get　excited；　I　beg　of　you。　　Property　makes　of　a　poet　either　a　Croesus　or　a　beggar；　only　equality　knows　how　to　honor　and　to　praise　him。　　What　is　its　duty？　　To　regulate　the　right　of　the　singer　and　the　duty　of　the　listener。　　Now；　notice　this　point；　which　is　a　very　important　one　in　the　solution　of　this　question：　both　are　free；　the　one　to　sell；　the　other　to　buy。　　Henceforth　their　respective　pretensions　go　for　nothing；　and　the　estimate；　whether　fair　or　unfair；　that　they　place；　the　one　upon　his　verse；　the　other　upon　his　liberality；　can　have　no　influence　upon　the　conditions　of　the　contract。　　We　must　no　longer；　in　making　our　bargains；　weigh　talent；　we　must　consider　products　only。

In　order　that　the　bard　of　Achilles　may　get　his　due　reward；　he　must　first　make　himself　wanted：　that　done；　the　exchange　of　his　verse　for　a　fee　of　any　kind；　being　a　free　act；　must　be　at　the　same　time　a　just　act；　that　is；　the　poet's　fee　must　be　equal　to　his　product。　　Now；　what　is　the　value　of　this　product？

Let　us　suppose；　in　the　first　place；　that　this　〃Iliad〃this　chef…d'　oeuvre　that　is　to　be　equitably　rewardedis　really　above　price；　that　we　do　not　know　how　to　appraise　it。　　If　the　public；　who　are　free　to　purchase　it；　refuse　to　do　so；　it　is　clear　that；　the　poem　being　unexchangeable；　its　intrinsic　value　will　not　be　diminished；　but　that　its　exchangeable　value；　or　its　productive　utility；　will　be　reduced　to　zero；　will　be　nothing　at　all。　　Then　we　must　seek　the　amount　of　wages　to　be　paid　between　infinity　on　the　one　hand　and　nothing　on　the　other；　at　an　equal　distance　from　each；　since　all　rights　and　liberties　are　entitled　to　equal　respect；　in　other　words；　it　is　not　the　intrinsic　value；　but　the　relative　value；　of　the　thing　sold　that　needs　to　be　fixed。　　The　question　grows　simpler：　what　is　this　relative　value？　　To　what　reward　does　a　poem　like　the　〃Iliad〃　entitle　its　author？

The　first　business　of　political　economy；　after　fixing　its　definitions；　was　the　solution　of　this　problem；　now；　not　only　has　it　not　been　solved；　but　it　has　been　declared　insoluble。　　According　to　the　economists；　the　relative　or　exchangeable　value　of　things　cannot　be　absolutely　determined；　it　necessarily　varies。


〃The　value　of　a　thing；〃　says　Say；　〃is　a　positive　quantity；　but　only　for　a　given　moment。　　It　is　its　nature　to　perpetually　vary；　to　change　from　one　point　to　another。　　Nothing　can　fix　it　absolutely；　because　it　is　based　on　needs　and　means　of　production　which　vary　with　every　moment。　　These　variations　complicate　economical　phenomena；　and　often　render　them　very　difficult　of　observation　and　solution。　　I　know　no　remedy　for　this；　it　is　not　in　our　power　to　change　the　nature　of　things。〃


Elsewhere　Say　says；　and　repeats；　that　value　being　based　on　utility；　and　utility　depending　entirely　on　our　needs；　whims；　customs；　&c。；　value　is　as　variable　as　opinion。　　Now；　political　economy　being　the　science　of　values；　of　their　production；　distribution；　exchange；　and　consumption；if　exchangeable　value　cannot　be　absolutely　determined；　how　is　political　economy　possible？　　How　can　it　be　a　science？　　How　can　two　economists　look　each　other　in　the　face　without　laughing？　　How　dare　they　insult　metaphysicians　and　psychologists？　　What！　that　fool　of　a　Descartes　imagined　that　philosophy　needed　an　immovable　basean　_aliquid　inconcussum_on　which　the　edifice　of　science　might　be　built；　and　he　was　simple　enough　to　search　for　it！　　And　the　Hermes　of　economy；　Trismegistus　Say；　devoting　half　a　volume　to　the　amplification　of　that　solemn　text；　_political　economy　is　a　science_；　has　the　courage　to　affirm　immediately　afterwards　that　this　science　cannot　determine　its　object；which　is　equivalent　to　saying　that　it　is　without　a　principle　or　foundation！　　He　does　not　know；　then；　the　illustrious　Say；　the　nature　of　a　science；　or　rather；　he　knows　nothing　of　the　subject　which　he　discusses。

Say's　example　has　borne　its　fruits。　　Political　economy；　as　it　exists　at　present；　resembles　ontology：　discussing　effects　and　causes；　it　knows　nothing；　explains　nothing；　decides　nothing。　　The　ideas　honored　with　the　name　of　economic　laws　are　nothing　more　than　a　few　trifling　generalities；　to　which　the　economists　thought　to　give　an　appearance　of　depth　by　clothing　them　in　high…sounding　words。　　As　for　the　attempts　that　have　been　made　by　the　economists　to　solve　social　problems；　all　that　can　be　said　of　them　is；　that；　if　a　glimmer　of　sense　occasionally　appears　in　their　lucubrations；　they　immediately　fall　back　into　absurdity。　　For　twenty…five　years　political　economy；　like　a　heavy　fog；　has　weighed　upon　France；　checking　the　efforts　of　the　mind；　and　setting　limits　to　liberty。

Has　every　creation　of　industry　a　venal；　absolute；　unchangeable；　and　consequently　legitimate　and　true　value？Yes。

Can　every　product　of　man　be　exchanged　for　some　other　product　of　man？Yes；　again。

How　many　nails　is　a　pair　of　shoes　worth？

If　we　can　solve　this　appalling　problem；　we　shall　have　the　key　of　the　social　system　for　which　humanity　has　been　searching　for　six　thousand　years。　　In　the　presence　of　this　problem；　the　economist　recoils　confused；　the　peasant　who　can　neither　read　nor　write　replies　without　hesitation：　　〃As　many　as　can　be　made　in　the　same　time；　and　with　the　same　expense。〃

The　absolute　value　of　a　thing；　then；　is　its　cost　in　time　and　expense。　　How　much　is　a　diamond　worth　which　costs　only　the　labor　of　picking　it　up？Nothing；　it　is　not　a　product　of　man。　　How　much　will　it　be　worth　when　cut　and　mounted？The　time　and　expense　which　it　has　cost　the　laborer。　　Why；　then；　is　it　sold　at　so　high　a　price？Because　men　are　not　free。　　Society　must　regulate　the　exchange　and　distribution　of　the　rarest　things；　as　it　does　that　of　the　most　common　ones；　in　such　a　way　that　each　may　share　in　the　enjoyment　of　them。　　What；　then；　is　that　value　which　is　based　upon　opinion？Delusion；　injustice；　and　robbery。

By　this　rule；　it　is　easy　to　reconcile　every　body。　　If　the　mean　term；　which　we　are　searching　for；　between　an　infinite　value　and　no　value　at　all　is　expressed　in　the　case　of　every　product；　by　the　amount　of　time　and　expense　which　the　product　cost；　a　poem　which　has　cost　its　author　thirty　years　of　labor　and　an　outlay　of　ten　thousand　francs　in　journeys；　books；　&c。；　must　be　paid　for　by　the　ordinary　wages　received　by　a　laborer　during　thirty　years；　PLUS　ten　thousand　francs　indemnity　for　expense　incurred。　　Suppose　the　whole　amount　to　be　fifty　thousand　francs；　if　the　society　which　gets　the　benefit　of　the　production　include　a　million　of　men；　my　share　of　the　debt　is　five　centimes。

This　gives　rise　to　a　few　observations。

1。　The　same　product；　at　different　times　and　in　different　places；　may　cost　more　or　less　of　time　and　outlay；　in　this　view；　it　is　true　that　value　is　a　variable　quantity。　　But　this　variation　is　not　that　of　the　economists；　who　place　in　their　list　of　the　causes　of　the　variation　of　values；　not　only　the　means　of　production；　but　taste；　caprice；　fashion；　and　opinion。　　In　short；　the　true　value　of　a　thing　is　invariable　in　its　algebraic　expression；　although　it　may　vary　in　its　monetary　expression。

2。　The　price　of　every　product　in　demand　should　be　its　cost　in　time　and　outlayneither　more　nor　less：　every　product　not　in　demand　is　a　loss　to　the　producera　commercial　non…value。

3。　The　ignorance　of　the　principle　of　evaluation；　and　the　difficulty　under　many　circumstances　of　applying　it；　is　the　source　of　commercial　fraud；　and　one　of　the　most　potent　causes　of　the　inequality　of　fortunes。

4。　To　reward　certain　industries　and　pay　for　certain　products；　a　society　is　needed　which　corresponds　in　size　with　the　rarity　of　talents；　the　costliness　of　the　products；　and　the　variety　of　the　arts　and　sciences。　　If；　for　example；　a　society　of　fifty　farmers　can　support　a　schoolmaster；　it　requires　one　hundred　for　a　shoemaker；　one　hundred　and　fifty　for　a　blacksmith；　two　hundred　for　a　tailor；　&c。　　If　the　number　of　farmers　rises　to　one　thousand；　ten　thousand；　one　hundred　thousand；　&c。；　as　fast　as　their　number　increases；　that　of　the　functionaries　which　are　earliest　required　must　increase　in　the　same　proportion；　so　that　the　highest　functions　become　possible　only　in　the　most　powerful　societies。＇1＇　　That　is　the　peculiar　feature　of　capacities；　the　character　of　genius；　the　seal　of　its　glory；　cannot　arise　and　develop　itself；　except　in　the　bosom　of　a　great　nation。　　But　this　physiological　condition；　necessary　to　the　existence　of　genius；　adds　nothing　to　its　social　rights：　far　from　that；the　delay　in　its　appearance　proves　that；　in　economical　and　civil　affairs；　the　loftiest　intelligence　must　submit　to　the　equality　of　possessions；　an　equality　which　is　anterior　to　it；　and　of　which　i