what is property-第34章

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matter　by　man；　that　he　may　appropriate　it　to　his　own　use；　and　not　at　all　of　Nature's　spontaneous　productions。　　Man's　labor　consists　in　a　simple　laying　on　of　hands。　　When　he　has　taken　that　trouble；　he　has　produced　a　value。　　Until　then；　the　salt　of　the　sea；　the　water　of　the　springs；　the　grass　of　the　fields；　and　the　trees　of　the　forests　are　to　him　as　if　they　were　not。　　The　sea；　without　the　fisherman　and　his　line；　supplies　no　fish。　　The　forest；　without　the　wood…cutter　and　his　axe；　furnishes　neither　fuel　nor　timber。　　The　meadow；　without　the　mower；　yields　neither　hay　nor　aftermath。　　Nature　is　a　vast　mass　of　material　to　be　cultivated　and　converted　into　products；　but　Nature　produces　nothing　for　herself：　in　the　economical　sense；　her　products；　in　their　relation　to　man；　are　not　yet　products。

Capital；　tools；　and　machinery　are　likewise　unproductive。　　The　hammer　and　the　anvil；　without　the　blacksmith　and　the　iron；　do　not　forge。　　The　mill；　without　the　miller　and　the　grain；　does　not　grind；　&c。　　Bring　tools　and　raw　material　together；　place　a　plough　and　some　seed　on　fertile　soil；　enter　a　smithy；　light　the　fire；　and　shut　up　the　shop；you　will　produce　nothing。　　The　following　remark　was　made　by　an　economist　who　possessed　more　good　sense　than　most　of　his　fellows：　　〃Say　credits　capital　with　an　active　part　unwarranted　by　its　nature；　left　to　itself；　it　is　an　idle　tool。〃　　（J。　Droz：　Political　Economy。）

Finally；　labor　and　capital　together；　when　unfortunately　combined；　produce　nothing。　　Plough　a　sandy　desert；　beat　the　water　of　the　rivers；　pass　type　through　a　sieve；you　will　get　neither　wheat；　nor　fish；　nor　books。　　Your　trouble　will　be　as　fruitless　as　was　the　immense　labor　of　the　army　of　Xerxes；　who；　as　Herodotus　says；　with　his　three　million　soldiers；　scourged　the　Hellespont　for　twenty…four　hours；　as　a　punishment　for　having　broken　and　scattered　the　pontoon　bridge　which　the　great　king　had　thrown　across　it。

Tools　and　capital；　land　and　labor；　considered　individually　and　abstractly；　are　not；　literally　speaking；　productive。　　The　proprietor　who　asks　to　be　rewarded　for　the　use　of　a　tool；　or　the　productive　power　of　his　land；　takes　for　granted；　then；　that　which　is　radically　false；　namely；　that　capital　produces　by　its　own　effort；and；　in　taking　pay　for　this　imaginary　product；　he　literally　receives　something　for　nothing。

OBJECTION。But　if　the　blacksmith；　the　wheelwright；　all　manufacturers　in　short；　have　a　right　to　the　products　in　return　for　the　implements　which　they　furnish；　and　if　land　is　an　implement　of　production；why　does　not　this　implement　entitle　its　proprietor；　be　his　claim　real　or　imaginary；　to　a　portion　of　the　products；　as　in　the　case　of　the　manufacturers　of　ploughs　and　wagons？

REPLY。Here　we　touch　the　heart　of　the　question；　the　mystery　of　property；　which　we　must　clear　up；　if　we　would　understand　any　thing　of　the　strange　effects　of　the　right　of　increase。

He　who　manufactures　or　repairs　the　farmer's　tools　receives　the　price　ONCE；　either　at　the　time　of　delivery；　or　in　several　payments；　and　when　this　price　is　once　paid　to　the　manufacturer；　the　tools　which　he　has　delivered　belong　to　him　no　more。　　Never　does　he　claim　double　payment　for　the　same　tool；　or　the　same　job　of　repairs。　　If　he　annually　shares　in　the　products　of　the　farmer；　it　is　owing　to　the　fact　that　he　annually　makes　something　for　the　farmer。

The　proprietor；　on　the　contrary；　does　not　yield　his　implement；　eternally　he　is　paid　for　it；　eternally　he　keeps　it。

In　fact；　the　rent　received　by　the　proprietor　is　not　intended　to　defray　the　expense　of　maintaining　and　repairing　the　implement；　this　expense　is　charged　to　the　borrower；　and　does　not　concern　the　proprietor　except　as　he　is　interested　in　the　preservation　of　the　article。　　If　he　takes　it　upon　himself　to　attend　to　the　repairs；　he　takes　care　that　the　money　which　he　expends　for　this　purpose　is　repaid。

This　rent　does　not　represent　the　product　of　the　implement；　since　of　itself　the　implement　produces　nothing；　we　have　just　proved　this；　and　we　shall　prove　it　more　clearly　still　by　its　consequences。

Finally；　this　rent　does　not　represent　the　participation　of　the　proprietor　in　the　production；　since　this　participation　could　consist；　like　that　of　the　blacksmith　and　the　wheelwright；　only　in　the　surrender　of　the　whole　or　a　part　of　his　implement；　in　which　case　he　would　cease　to　be　its　proprietor；　which　would　involve　a　contradiction　of　the　idea　of　property。

Then；　between　the　proprietor　and　his　tenant　there　is　no　exchange　either　of　values　or　services；　then；　as　our　axiom　says；　farm…rent　is　real　increase；an　extortion　based　solely　upon　fraud　and　violence　on　the　one　hand；　and　weakness　and　ignorance　upon　the　other。　　PRODUCTS　say　the　economists；　ARE　BOUGHT　ONLY　BY　PRODUCTS。　　This　maxim　is　property's　condemnation。　　The　proprietor；　producing　neither　by　his　own　labor　nor　by　his　implement；　and　receiving　products　in　exchange　for　nothing；　is　either　a　parasite　or　a　thief。　　Then；　if　property　can　exist　only　as　a　right；　property　is　impossible。

COROLLARIES。1。　The　republican　constitution　of　1793；　which　defined　property　as　〃the　right　to　enjoy　the　fruit　of　one's　labor；〃　was　grossly　mistaken。　　It　should　have　said；　〃Property　is　the　right　to　enjoy　and　dispose　at　will　of　another's　goods；the　fruit　of　another's　industry　and　labor。〃

2。　Every　possessor　of　lands；　houses；　furniture；　machinery；　tools；　money；　&c。；　who　lends　a　thing　for　a　price　exceeding　the　cost　of　repairs　（the　repairs　being　charged　to　the　lender；　and　representing　products　which　he　exchanges　for　other　products）；　is　guilty　of　swindling　and　extortion。　　In　short；　all　rent　received　（nominally　as　damages；　but　really　as　payment　for　a　loan）　is　an　act　of　property；a　robbery。

HISTORICAL　COMMENT。The　tax　which　a　victorious　nation　levies　upon　a　conquered　nation　is　genuine　farm…rent。　　The　seigniorial　rights　abolished　by　the　Revolution　of　1789；tithes；　mortmain；　statute…labor；　&c。；were　different　forms　of　the　rights　of　property；　and　they　who　under　the　titles　of　nobles；　seigneurs；　prebendaries；　&c。　enjoyed　these　rights；　were　neither　more　nor　less　than　proprietors。　　To　defend　property　to…　day　is　to　condemn　the　Revolution。


SECOND　PROPOSITION。

Property　is　impossible　because　wherever　it　exists　Production　costs　more　than　it　is　worth。


The　preceding　proposition　was　legislative　in　its　nature；　this　one　is　economical。　　It　serves　to　prove　that　property；　which　originates　in　violence；　results　in　waste。


〃Production；〃　says　Say；　〃is　exchange　on　a　large　scale。　　To　render　the　exchange　productive　the　value　of　the　whole　amount　of　service　must　be　balanced　by　the　value　of　the　product。　　If　this　condition　is　not　complied　with；　the　exchange　is　unequal；　the　producer　gives　more　than　he　receives。〃


Now；　value　being　necessarily　based　upon　utility；　it　follows　that　every　useless　product　is　necessarily　valueless；that　it　cannot　be　exchanged；　and；　consequently；　that　it　cannot　be　given　in　payment　for　productive　services。

Then；　though　production　may　equal　consumption；　it　never　can　exceed　it；　for　there　is　no　real　production　save　where　there　is　a　production　of　utility；　and　there　is　no　utility　save　where　there　is　a　possibility　of　consumption。　　Thus；　so　much　of　every　product　as　is　rendered　by　excessive　abundance　inconsumable；　becomes　useless；　valueless；　unexchangeable；consequently；　unfit　to　be　given　in　payment　for　any　thing　whatever；　and　is　no　longer　a　product。

Consumption；　on　the　other　hand；　to　be　legitimate；to　be　true　consumption；must　be　reproductive　of　utility；　for；　if　it　is　unproductive；　the　products　which　it　destroys　are　cancelled　valuesthings　produced　at　a　pure　loss；　a　state　of　things　which　causes　products　to　depreciate　in　value。　　Man　has　the　power　to　destroy；　but　he　consumes　only　that　which　he　reproduces。　　Under　a　right　system　of　economy；　there　is　then　an　equation　between　production　and　consumption。

These　points　established；　let　us　suppose　a　community　of　one　thousand　families；　enclosed　in　a　territory　of　a　given　circumference；　and　deprived　of　foreign　intercourse。　　Let　this　community　represent　the　human　race；　which；　scattered　over　the　face　of　the　earth；　is　really　isolated。　　In　fact；　the　difference　between　a　community　and　the　human　race　being　only　a　numerical　one；　the　economical　results　will　be　absolutely　the　same　in　each　case。

Suppose；　then；　that　these　thousand　families；　devoting　themselves　exclusively　to　wheat…culture；　are　obliged　to　pay　to　one　hundred　individuals；　chosen　from　the　mass；　an　annual　revenue　of　ten　per　cent。　on　their　product。　　It　is　clear　that；　in　such　a　case；　the　right　of　increase　is　equivalent　to　a　tax　levied　in　advance　upon　social　production。　　Of　what　use　is　this　tax？

It　cannot　be　levied　to　supply　the　community　with　provisions；　for　between　that　and　farm…rent　there　is　nothing　in　common；　nor　to　pay　for　services　and　products；for　the　proprietors；　laboring　like　the　others；　have　labored　only　for　themselves。　　Finally；　this　tax　is　of　no　use　to　its　recipients　who；　having　harvested　wheat　enough　for　their　own　consumption；　and　not　being　able　in　a　society　without　commerce　and　manufactures　to　procure　any　thing　else　in　exchange　for　it；　thereby　lose　the　advantage　of　their　income。

In　such　a　society；　one…tenth　of　the　product　being　inconsumable；　one…tenth　of　the　labor　goes　unpaidproduction　costs　more　than　it　is　worth。

Now；　change　three　hundred　of　our　wheat…producers　into　artisans　of　all　kinds：　one　hundred　gardeners　and　wine…growers；　sixty　shoemakers　and　tailors；　fifty　carpenters　and　blacksmiths；　eighty　of　various　professions；　and；　that　nothing　may　be　lacking；　seven　school…masters；　one　mayor；　one　judge；　and　one　priest；　each　industry　furnishes　the　whole　community　with　its　special　product。　　Now；　the　total　production　being　one　thousand；　each　laborer's　consumption　is　one；　namely；　wheat；　meat；　and　grain；　0。7；　wine　and　vegetables；　0。1；　shoes　and　clothing；　0。06；　iron…work　and　furniture；　0。05；　sundries；　0。08；　instruction；　0。007；　administration；　0。002；　mass；　0。001；　Total　1。

But　the　community　owes　a　revenue　of　ten　per　cent。；　and　it　matters　little　whether　the　farmers　alone　pay　it；　or　all　the　laborers　are　responsible　for　it；the　result　is　the　same。　　The　farmer　raises　the　price　of　his　products　in　proportion　to　his　share　of　the　debt；　the　other　laborers　follow　his　example。　　Then；　after　some　fluctuations；　equilibrium　is　established；　and　all　pay　nearly　the　same　amount　of　the　revenue。　　It　would　be　a　grave　error　to　assume　that　in　a　nation　none　but　farmers　pay　farm…rentthe　whole　nation　pays　it。

I　say；　then；　that　by　this　tax　of　ten　per　cent。　each　laborer's　consumption　is　reduced　as　follows：　wheat；　0。63；　wine　and　vegetables；　0。09；　clothing　and　shoes；　0。054；　furniture　and　iron…　work；　0。045；　other　products；　0。072；　schooling；　0。0063；　administration；　0。0018；　mass；　0。0009。　　Total　0。9。

The　laborer　has　produced　1；　he　consumes　only　0。9。　　He　loses；　then；　one…tenth　of　the　price　of　his　labor；　his　production　still　costs　more　than　it　is　worth。　　On　the　other　hand；　the　tenth　received　by　the　proprietors　is　no　less　a　waste；　for；　being　laborers　themselves；　they；　like　the　others；　possess　in　the　nine…　tenths　of　their　product　the　wherewithal　to　live：　they　want　for　nothing。　　Why　should　they　wish　their　proportion　of　bread；　wine；　meat；　clothes；　shelter；　&c。；　to　be　doubled；　if　they　can　neither　consume　nor　exchange　them？　　Then　farm…rent；　with　them　as　with　the　rest　of　the　laborers；