what is property-第4章

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　savant。

In　1843；　Proudhon　published　the　〃Creation　of　Order　in　Humanity；〃　a　large　volume；　which　does　not　deal　exclusively　with　questions　of　social　economy。　　Religion；　philosophy；　method；　certainty；　logic；　and　dialectics　are　treated　at　considerable　length。

Released　from　his　printing…office　on　the　1st　of　March　of　the　same　year；　Proudhon　had　to　look　for　a　chance　to　earn　his　living。　　Messrs。　Gauthier　Bros。；　carriers　by　water　between　Mulhouse　and　Lyons；　the　eldest　of　whom　was　Proudhon's　companion　in　childhood；　conceived　the　happy　thought　of　employing　him；　of　utilizing　his　ability　in　their　business；　and　in　settling　the　numerous　points　of　difficulty　which　daily　arose。　　Besides　the　large　number　of　accounts　which　his　new　duties　required　him　to　make　out；　and　which　retarded　the　publication　of　the　〃System　of　Economical　Contradictions；〃　until　October；　1846；　we　ought　to　mention　a　work；　which；　before　it　appeared　in　pamphlet　form；　was　published　in　the　〃Revue　des　Economistes；〃〃Competition　between　Railroads　and　Navigable　Ways。〃

〃Le　Miserere；　or　the　Repentance　of　a　King；〃　which　he　published　in　March；　1845；　in　the　〃Revue　Independante；〃　during　that　Lenten　season　when　Lacordaire　was　preaching　in　Lyons；　proves　that；　though　devoting　himself　with　ardor　to　the　study　of　economical　problems；　Proudhon　had　not　lost　his　interest　in　questions　of　religious　history。　　Among　his　writings　on　these　questions；　which　he　was　unfortunately　obliged　to　leave　unfinished；　we　may　mention　a　nearly　completed　history　of　the　early　Christian　heresies；　and　of　the　struggle　of　Christianity　against　Caesarism。

We　have　said　that；　in　1848；　Proudhon　recognized　three　masters。　　Having　no　knowledge　of　the　German　language；　he　could　not　have　read　the　works　of　Hegel；　which　at　that　time　had　not　been　translated　into　French。　　It　was　Charles　Grun；　a　German；　who　had　come　to　France　to　study　the　various　philosophical　and　socialistic　systems；　who　gave　him　the　substance　of　the　Hegelian　ideas。　　During　the　winter　of　1844…45；　Charles　Grun　had　some　long　conversations　with　Proudhon；　which　determined；　very　decisively；　not　the　ideas；　which　belonged　exclusively　to　the　bisontin　thinker；　but　the　form　of　the　important　work　on　which　he　labored　after　1843；　and　which　was　published　in　1846　by　Guillaumin。

Hegel's　great　idea；　which　Proudhon　appropriated；　and　which　he　demonstrates　with　wonderful　ability　in　the　〃System　of　Economical　Contradictions；〃　is　as　follows：　　Antinomy；　that　is；　the　existence　of　two　laws　or　tendencies　which　are　opposed　to　each　other；　is　possible；　not　only　with　two　different　things；　but　with　one　and　the　same　thing。　　Considered　in　their　thesis；　that　is；　in　the　law　or　tendency　which　created　them；　all　the　economical　categories　are　rational；competition；　monopoly；　the　balance　of　trade；　and　property；　as　well　as　the　division　of　labor；　machinery；　taxation；　and　credit。　　But；　like　communism　and　population；　all　these　categories　are　antinomical；　all　are　opposed；　not　only　to　each　other；　but　to　themselves。　　All　is　opposition；　and　disorder　is　born　of　this　system　of　opposition。　　Hence；　the　sub…title　of　the　work；〃Philosophy　of　Misery。〃　　No　category　can　be　suppressed；　the　opposition；　antinomy；　or　contre…tendance；　which　exists　in　each　of　them；　cannot　be　suppressed。

Where；　then；　lies　the　solution　of　the　social　problem？　　Influenced　by　the　Hegelian　ideas；　Proudhon　began　to　look　for　it　in　a　superior　synthesis；　which　should　reconcile　the　thesis　and　antithesis。　　Afterwards；　while　at　work　upon　his　book　on　〃Justice；〃　he　saw　that　the　antinomical　terms　do　not　cancel　each　other；　any　more　than　the　opposite　poles　of　an　electric　pile　destroy　each　other；　that　they　are　the　procreative　cause　of　motion；　life；　and　progress；　that　the　problem　is　to　discover；　not　their　fusion；　which　would　be　death；　but　their　equilibrium；an　equilibrium　for　ever　unstable；　varying　with　the　development　of　society。

On　the　cover　of　the　〃System　of　Economical　Contradictions；〃　Proudhon　announced；　as　soon　to　appear；　his　〃Solution　of　the　Social　Problem。〃　　This　work；　upon　which　he　was　engaged　when　the　Revolution　of　1848　broke　out；　had　to　be　cut　up　into　pamphlets　and　newspaper　articles。　　The　two　pamphlets；　which　he　published　in　March；　1848；　before　he　became　editor　of　〃Le　Representant　du　Peuple；〃　bear　the　same　title；〃Solution　of　the　Social　Problem。〃　　The　first；　which　is　mainly　a　criticism　of　the　early　acts　of　the　provisional　government；　is　notable　from　the　fact　that　in　it　Proudhon；　in　advance　of　all　others；　energetically　opposed　the　establishment　of　national　workshops。　　The　second；　〃Organization　of　Credit　and　Circulation；〃　sums　up　in　a　few　pages　his　idea　of　economical　progress：　a　gradual　reduction　of　interest；　profit；　rent；　taxes；　and　wages。　　All　progress　hitherto　has　been　made　in　this　manner；　in　this　manner　it　must　continue　to　be　made。　　Those　workingmen　who　favor　a　nominal　increase　of　wages　are；　unconsciously。　　following　a　back…track；　opposed　to　all　their　interests。

After　having　published　in　〃Le　Representant　du　Peuple；〃　the　statutes　of　the　Bank　of　Exchange；a　bank　which　was　to　make　no　profits；　since　it　was　to　have　no　stockholders；　and　which；　consequently；　was　to　discount　commercial　paper　with　out　interest；　charging　only　a　commission　sufficient　to　defray　its　running　expenses；Proudhon　endeavored；　in　a　number　of　articles；　to　explain　its　mechanism　and　necessity。　　These　articles　have　been　collected　in　one　volume；　under　the　double　title；　〃Resume　of　the　Social　Question；　Bank　of　Exchange。〃　　His　other　articles；　those　which　up　to　December；　1848；　were　inspired　by　the　progress　of　events；　have　been　collected　in　another　volume；〃Revolutionary　Ideas。〃

Almost　unknown　in　March；　1848；　and　struck　off　in　April　from　the　list　of　candidates　for　the　Constituent　Assembly　by　the　delegation　of　workingmen　which　sat　at　the　Luxembourg；　Proudhon　had　but　a　very　small　number　of　votes　at　the　general　elections　of　April。　　At　the　complementary　elections；　which　were　held　in　the　early　days　of　June；　he　was　elected　in　Paris　by　seventy…seven　thousand　votes。

After　the　fatal　days　of　June；　he　published　an　article　on　le　terme；　which　caused　the　first　suspension　of　〃Le　Representant　du　Peuple。〃　　It　was　at　that　time　that　he　introduced　a　bill　into　the　Assembly；　which；　being　referred　to　the　Committee　on　the　Finances；　drew　forth；　first；　the　report　of　M。　Thiers；　and　then　the　speech　which　Proudhon　delivered；　on　the　31st　of　July；　in　reply　to　this　report。　　〃Le　Representant　du　Peuple；〃　reappearing　a　few　days　later；　he　wrote；　a　propos　of　the　law　requiring　journals　to　give　bonds；　his　famous　article　on　〃The　Malthusians〃　（August　10；　1848）。

Ten　days　afterwards；　〃Le　Representant　du　Peuple；〃　again　suspended；　definitively　ceased　to　appear。　　〃Le　Peuple；〃　of　which　he　was　the　editor…in…chief；　and　the　first　number　of　which　was　issued　in　the　early　part　of　September；　appeared　weekly　at　first；　for　want　of　sufficient　bonds；　it　afterwards　appeared　daily；　with　a　double　number　once　a　week。　　Before　〃Le　Peuple〃　had　obtained　its　first　bond；　Proudhon　published　a　remarkable　pamphlet　on　the　〃Right　to　Labor；〃a　right　which　he　denied　in　the　form　in　which　it　was　then　affirmed。　　It　was　during　the　same　period　that　he　proposed；　at　the　Poissonniere　banquet；　his　Toast　to　the　Revolution。

Proudhon；　who　had　been　asked　to　preside　at　the　banquet；　refused；　and　proposed　in　his　stead；　first；　Ledru…Rollin；　and　then；　in　view　of　the　reluctance　of　the　organizers　of　the　banquet；　the　illustrious　president　of　the　party　of　the　Mountain；　Lamennais。　　It　was　evidently　his　intention　to　induce　the　representatives　of　the　Extreme　Left　to　proclaim　at　last　with　him　the　Democratic　and　Social　Republic。　　Lamennais　being　accepted　by　the　organizers；　the　Mountain　promised　to　be　present　at　the　banquet。　　The　night　before；　all　seemed　right；　when　General　Cavaignac　replaced　Minister　Senart　by　Minister　Dufaure…Vivien。　　The　Mountain；　questioning　the　government；　proposed　a　vote　of　confidence　in　the　old　minister；　and；　tacitly；　of　want　of　confidence　in　the　new。　　Proudhon　abstained　from　voting　on　this　proposition。　　The　Mountain　declared　that　it　would　not　attend　the　banquet；　if　Proudhon　was　to　be　present。　　Five　Montagnards；　Mathieu　of　Drome　at　their　head；　went　to　the　temporary　office　of　〃Le　Peuple〃　to　notify　him　of　this。　　〃Citizen　Proudhon；〃　said　they　to　the　organizers　in　his　presence；　〃in　abstaining　from　voting　to…day　on　the　proposition　of　the　Mountain；　has　betrayed　the　Republican　cause。〃　　Proudhon；　vehemently　questioned；　began　his　defence　by　recalling；　on　the　one　hand；　the　treatment　which　he　had　received　from　the　dismissed　minister；　and；　on　the　other；　the　impartial　conduct　displayed　towards　him　in　1840　by　M。　Vivien；　the　new　minister。　　He　then　attacked　the　Mountain　by　telling　its　delegates　that　it　sought　only　a　pretext；　and　that　really；　in　spite　of　its　professions　of　Socialism　in　private　conversation；　whether　with　him　or　with　the　organizers　of　the　banquet；　it　had　not　the　courage　to　publicly　declare　itself　Socialist。

On　the　following　day；　in　his　Toast　to　the　Revolution；　a　toast　which　was　filled　with　allusions　to　the　exciting　scene　of　the　night　before；　Proudhon　commenced　his　struggle　against　the　Mountain。　　His　duel　with　Felix　Pyat　was　one　of　the　episodes　of　this　struggle；　which　became　less　bitter　on　Proudhon's　side　after　the　Mountain　finally　decided　to　publicly　proclaim　the　Democratic　and　Social　Republic。　　The　campaign　for　the　election　of　a　President　of　the　Republic　had　just　begun。　　Proudhon　made　a　very　sharp　attack　on　the　candidacy　of　Louis　Bonaparte　in　a　pamphlet　which　is　regarded　as　one　of　his　literary　chefs…d'oeuvre：　the　〃Pamphlet　on　the　Presidency。〃　　An　opponent　of　this　institution；　against　which　he　had　voted　in　the　Constituent　Assembly；　he　at　first　decided　to　take　no　part　in　the　campaign。　　But　soon　seeing　that　he　was　thus　increasing　the　chances　of　Louis　Bonaparte；　and　that　if；　as　was　not　at　all　probable；　the　latter　should　not　obtain　an　absolute　majority　of　the　votes；　the　Assembly　would　not　fail　to　elect　General　Cavaignac；　he　espoused；　for　the　sake　of　form；　the　candidacy　of　Raspail；　who　was　supported　by　his　friends　in　the　Socialist　Committee。　　Charles　Delescluze；　the　editor…in…　chief　of　〃La　Revolution　Democratique　et　Sociale；〃　who　could　not　forgive　him　for　having　preferred　Raspail　to　Ledru…Rollin；　the　candidate　of　the　Mountain；　attacked　him　on　the　day　after　the　election　with　a　violence　which　overstepped　all　bounds。　　At　first；　Proudhon　had　the　wisdom　to　refrain　from　answering　him。　　At　length；　driven　to　an　extremity；　he　became　aggressive　himself；　and　Delescluze　sent　him　his　seconds。　　This　time；　Proudhon　positively　refused　to　fight；　he　would　not　have　fought　with　Felix　Pyat；　had　not　his　courage　been　called　in　question。

On　the　25th　of　January；　1849；　Proudhon；　rising　from　a　sick　bed；　saw　that　the　existence　of　the　Constituent　Assembly　was　endangered　by　the　coalition　of　the　monarchical　parties　with　Louis　Bonaparte；　who　was　already　planning　his　coup　d'Etat。　　He　did　not　hesitate　to　openly　attack　the　man　who　had　just　received　five　millions　of　votes。　　He　wanted　to　break　the　idol；　he　succeeded　only　in　getting　prosecuted　and　condemned　himself。　　The　prosecution　demanded　against　him　was　authorized　by　a　majority　of　the　Constituent　Assembly；　in　spite　of　the　speech　which　he　delivered　on　that　occasion。　　Declared　guilty　by　the　jury；　he　was　sentenced；　in　March；　1849；　to　three　years'　imprisonment　an