what is property-第43章

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he　likes；　for　the　very　reason　that　A　is　stronger　than　B。　　Consequently；　it　is　not　the　right　of　property　which　enables　A　and　C　to　rob　B　and　D；　but　the　right　of　might。　　By　the　right　of　property；　neither　the　two　neighbors　A　and　B；　nor　the　two　merchants　C　and　D；　could　harm　each　other。　　They　could　neither　dispossess　nor　destroy　one　another；　nor　gain　at　one　another's　expense。　　The　power　of　invasion　lies　in　superior　strength。

But　it　is　superior　strength　also　which　enables　the　manufacturer　to　reduce　the　wages　of　his　employees；　and　the　rich　merchant　and　well…stocked　proprietor　to　sell　their　products　for　what　they　please。　　The　manufacturer　says　to　the　laborer；　〃You　are　as　free　to　go　elsewhere　with　your　services　as　I　am　to　receive　them。　　I　offer　you　so　much。〃　　The　merchant　says　to　the　customer；　〃Take　it　or　leave　it；　you　are　master　of　your　money；　as　I　am　of　my　goods。　　I　want　so　much。〃　Who　will　yield？　　The　weaker。

Therefore；　without　force；　property　is　powerless　against　property；　since　without　force　it　has　no　power　to　increase；　therefore；　without　force；　property　is　null　and　void。

HISTORICAL　COMMENT。The　struggle　between　colonial　and　native　sugars　furnishes　us　a　striking　example　of　this　impossibility　of　property。　　Leave　these　two　industries　to　themselves；　and　the　native　manufacturer　will　be　ruined　by　the　colonist。　　To　maintain　the　beet…root；　the　cane　must　be　taxed：　to　protect　the　property　of　the　one；　it　is　necessary　to　injure　the　property　of　the　other。　　The　most　remarkable　feature　of　this　business　is　precisely　that　to　which　the　least　attention　is　paid；　namely；　that；　in　one　way　or　another；　property　has　to　be　violated。　　Impose　on　each　industry　a　proportional　tax；　so　as　to　preserve　a　balance　in　the　market；　and　you　create　a　MAXIMUM　PRICE；you　attack　property　in　two　ways。　　On　the　one　hand；　your　tax　interferes　with　the　liberty　of　trade；　on　the　other；　it　does　not　recognize　equality　of　proprietors。　　Indemnify　the　beet…root；　you　violate　the　property　of　the　tax…　payer。　　Cultivate　the　two　varieties　of　sugar　at　the　nation's　expense；　just　as　different　varieties　of　tobacco　are　cultivated；　you　abolish　one　species　of　property。　　This　last　course　would　be　the　simpler　and　better　one；　but；　to　induce　the　nations　to　adopt　it；　requires　such　a　co…operation　of　able　minds　and　generous　hearts　as　is　at　present　out　of　the　question。

Competition；　sometimes　called　liberty　of　trade；in　a　word；　property　in　exchange；will　be　for　a　long　time　the　basis　of　our　commercial　legislation；　which；　from　the　economical　point　of　view；　embraces　all　civil　laws　and　all　government。　　Now；　what　is　competition？　　A　duel　in　a　closed　field；　where　arms　are　the　test　of　right。

〃Who　is　the　liar；the　accused　or　the　accuser？〃　said　our　barbarous　ancestors。　　〃Let　them　fight　it　out；〃　replied　the　still　more　barbarous　judge；　〃the　stronger　is　right。〃

Which　of　us　two　shall　sell　spices　to　our　neighbor？　　〃Let　each　offer　them　for　sale；〃　cries　the　economist；　〃the　sharper；　or　the　more　cunning；　is　the　more　honest　man；　and　the　better　merchant。〃

Such　is　the　exact　spirit　of　the　Code　Napoleon。


TENTH　PROPOSITION。

Property　is　impossible；　because　it　is　the　Negation　of　equality。


The　development　of　this　proposition　will　be　the　resume　of　the　preceding　ones。

1。　It　is　a　principle　of　economical　justice；　that　PRODUCTS　ARE　BOUGHT　ONLY　BY　PRODUCTS。　　Property；　being　capable　of　defence　only　on　the　ground　that　it　produces　utility；　is；　since　it　produces　nothing；　for　ever　condemned。

2。　It　is　an　economical　law；　that　LABOR　MUST　BE　BALANCED　BY　PRODUCT。　　It　is　a　fact　that；　with　property；　production　costs　more　than　it　is　worth。

3。　Another　economical　law：　　THE　CAPITAL　BEING　GIVEN；　PRODUCTION　IS　MEASURED；　NOT　BY　THE　AMOUNT　OF　CAPITAL；　BUT　BY　PRODUCTIVE　CAPACITY。　　Property；　requiring　income　to　be　always　proportional　to　capital　without　regard　to　labor；　does　not　recognize　this　relation　of　equality　between　effect　and　cause。

4　and　5。　Like　the　insect　which　spins　its　silk；　the　laborer　never　produces　for　himself　alone。　　Property；　demanding　a　double　product　and　unable　to　obtain　it；　robs　the　laborer；　and　kills　him。

6。　Nature　has　given　to　every　man　but　one　mind；　one　heart；　one　will。　　Property；　granting　to　one　individual　a　plurality　of　votes；　supposes　him　to　have　a　plurality　of　minds。

7。　All　consumption　which　is　not　reproductive　of　utility　is　destruction。　　Property；　whether　it　consumes　or　hoards　or　capitalizes；　is　productive　of　INUTILITY；the　cause　of　sterility　and　death。

8。　The　satisfaction　of　a　natural　right　always　gives　rise　to　an　equation；　in　other　words；　the　right　to　a　thing　is　necessarily　balanced　by　the　possession　of　the　thing。　　Thus；　between　the　right　to　liberty　and　the　condition　of　a　free　man　there　is　a　balance；　an　equation；　between　the　right　to　be　a　father　and　paternity；　an　equation；　between　the　right　to　security　and　the　social　guarantee；　an　equation。　　But　between　the　right　of　increase　and　the　receipt　of　this　increase　there　is　never　an　equation；　for　every　new　increase　carries　with　it　the　right　to　another；　the　latter　to　a　third；　and　so　on　for　ever。　　Property；　never　being　able　to　accomplish　its　object；　is　a　right　against　Nature　and　against　reason。

9。　Finally；　property　is　not　self…existent。　　An　extraneous　cause　either　FORCE　or　FRAUDis　necessary　to　its　life　and　action。　　In　other　words；　property　is　not　equal　to　property：　it　is　a　negationa　delusionNOTHING。



CHAPTER　V。


PSYCHOLOGICAL　EXPOSITION　OF　THE　IDEA　OF　JUSTICE　AND　INJUSTICE；　AND　A　DETERMINATION　OF　THE　PRINCIPLE　OF　GOVERNMENT　AND　OF　RIGHT。


Property　is　impossible；　equality　does　not　exist。　　We　hate　the　former；　and　yet　wish　to　possess　it；　the　latter　rules　all　our　thoughts；　yet　we　know　not　how　to　reach　it。　　Who　will　explain　this　profound　antagonism　between　our　conscience　and　our　will？　　Who　will　point　out　the　causes　of　this　pernicious　error；　which　has　become　the　most　sacred　principle　of　justice　and　society？

I　am　bold　enough　to　undertake　the　task；　and　I　hope　to　succeed。

But　before　explaining　why　man　has　violated　justice；　it　is　necessary　to　determine　what　justice　is。


PART　FIRST。

％　1。Of　the　Moral　Sense　in　Man　and　the　Animals。


The　philosophers　have　endeavored　often　to　locate　the　line　which　separates　man's　intelligence　from　that　of　the　brutes；　and；　according　to　their　general　custom；　they　gave　utterance　to　much　foolishness　before　resolving　upon　the　only　course　possible　for　them　to　take；observation。　　It　was　reserved　for　an　unpretending　savantwho　perhaps　did　not　pride　himself　on　his　philosophyto　put　an　end　to　the　interminable　controversy　by　a　simple　distinction；　but　one　of　those　luminous　distinctions　which　are　worth　more　than　systems。　　Frederic　Cuvier　separated　INSTINCT　from　INTELLIGENCE。

But；　as　yet；　no　one　has　proposed　this　question：

IS　THE　DIFFERENCE　BETWEEN　MAN'S　MORAL　SENSE　AND　THAT　OF　THE　BRUTE　A　DIFFERENCE　IN　KIND　OR　ONLY　IN　DEGREE？

If；　hitherto；　any　one　had　dared　to　maintain　the　latter　alternative；　his　arguments　would　have　seemed　scandalous；　blasphemous；　and　offensive　to　morality　and　religion。　　The　ecclesiastical　and　secular　tribunals　would　have　condemned　him　with　one　voice。　　And；　mark　the　style　in　which　they　would　have　branded　the　immoral　paradox！　　〃Conscience；〃they　would　have　cried；〃conscience；　man's　chief　glory；　was　given　to　him　exclusively；　the　notion　of　justice　and　injustice；　of　merit　and　demerit；　is　his　noble　privilege；　to　man；　alone；the　lord　of　creation；belongs　the　sublime　power　to　resist　his　worldly　propensities；　to　choose　between　good　and　evil；　and　to　bring　himself　more　and　more　into　the　resemblance　of　God　through　liberty　and　justice。　。　。　。　　No；　the　holy　image　of　virtue　was　never　graven　save　on　the　heart　of　man。〃　　Words　full　of　feeling；　but　void　of　sense。

Man　is　a　rational　and　social　animal｛GREEK　　‘　c　g｝said　Aristotle。　　This　definition　is　worth　more　than　all　which　have　been　given　since。　　I　do　not　except　even　M。　de　Bonald's　celebrated　definition；MAN　IS　AN　INTELLECT　SERVED　BY　ORGANSa　definition　which　has　the　double　fault　of　explaining　the　known　by　the　unknown；　that　is；　the　living　being　by　the　intellect；　and　of　neglecting　man's　essential　quality；animality。

Man；　then；　is　an　animal　living　in　society。　　Society　means　the　sum　total　of　relationships；　in　short；　system。　　Now；　all　systems　exist　only　on　certain　conditions。　　What；　then；　are　the　conditions；　the　LAWS；　of　human　society？

What　are　the　RIGHTS　of　men　with　respect　to　each　other；　what　is　JUSTICE？

It　amounts　to　nothing　to　say；with　the　philosophers　of　various　schools；〃It　is　a　divine　instinct；　an　immortal　and　heavenly　voice；　a　guide　given　us　by　Nature；　a　light　revealed　unto　every　man　on　coming　into　the　world；　a　law　engraved　upon　our　hearts；　it　is　the　voice　of　conscience；　the　dictum　of　reason；　the　inspiration　of　sentiment；　the　penchant　of　feeling；　it　is　the　love　of　self　in　others；　it　is　enlightened　self…interest；　or　else　it　is　an　innate　idea；　the　imperative　command　of　applied　reason；　which　has　its　source　in　the　concepts　of　pure　reason；　it　is　a　passional　attraction；〃　&c。；　&c。　　This　may　be　as　true　as　it　seems　beautiful；　but　it　is　utterly　meaningless。　　Though　we　should　prolong　this　litany　through　ten　pages　（it　has　been　filtered　through　a　thousand　volumes）；　we　should　be　no　nearer　to　the　solution　of　the　question。

〃Justice　is　public　utility；〃　says　Aristotle。　　That　is　true；　but　it　is　a　tautology。　　〃The　principle　that　the　public　welfare　ought　to　be　the　object　of　the　legislator〃says　M。　Ch。　Comte　in　his　〃Treatise　on　Legislation〃〃cannot　be　overthrown。　　But　legislation　is　advanced　no　farther　by　its　announcement　and　demonstration；　than　is　medicine　when　it　is　said　that　it　is　the　business　of　physicians　to　cure　the　sick。〃

Let　us　take　another　course。　　RUGHT　is　the　sum　total　of　the　principles　which　govern　society。　　Justice；　in　man；　is　the　respect　and　observation　of　those　principles。　　To　practise　justice　is　to　obey　the　social　instinct；　to　do　an　act　of　justice　is　to　do　a　social　act。　　If；　then；　we　watch　the　conduct　of　men　towards　each　other　under　different　circumstances；　it　will　be　easy　for　us　to　distinguish　between　the　presence　and　absence　of　society；　from　the　result　we　may　inductively　infer　the　law。

Let　us　commence　with　the　simplest　and　least　doubtful　cases。

The　mother；　who　protects　her　son　at　the　peril　of　her　life；　and　sacrifices　every　thing　to　his　support；　is　in　society　with　him　she　is　a　good　mother。　　She；　on　the　contrary；　who　abandons　her　child；　is　unfaithful　to　the　social　instinct；maternal　love　being　one　of　its　many　features；　she　is　an　unnatural　mother。

If　I　plunge　into　the　water　to　rescue　a　drowning　man；　I　am　his　brother；　his　associate；　if；　instead　of　aiding　him；　I　sink　him；　I　am　his　enemy；　his　murderer。

Whoever　bestows　alms　treats　the　poor　man　as　his　associate；　not　thoroughly；　it　is　true；　but　only　in　respect　to　the　amount　which　he　shares　with　him。　　Whoever　takes　by　force　or　stratagem　that　which　is　not　the　product　of　his　labor；　destroys　his　social　characterhe　is　a　brigand。

The　Samaritan　who　relieves　the　traveller　lying　by　the　wayside；　dresses　his　wounds；　comforts　him；　and　supplies　him　with　money；　thereby　declares　himself　his　associatehis　neighbor；　the　priest；　who　passes　by　on　the　other　side；　remains　unassociated；　and　is　his　enemy。

In　all　these　cases；　man　is　moved　by　an　internal　attraction　towards　his　fellow；　by　a　secret　sympathy　which　causes　him　to　love；　con