what is property-第48章

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n　society；　are　exact　reproductions　of　their　character。　　Just　as　the　swarm　of　bees　is　composed　of　individual　bees；　alike　in　nature　and　equal　in　value；　so　the　honeycomb　is　formed　of　individual　cells；　constantly　and　invariably　repeated。

But　man's　intelligence；　fitted　for　his　social　destiny　and　his　personal　needs；　is　of　a　very　different　composition；　and　therefore　gives　rise　to　a　wonderful　variety　of　human　wills。　　In　the　bee；　the　will　is　constant　and　uniform；　because　the　instinct　which　guides　it　is　invariable；　and　constitutes　the　animal's　whole　life　and　nature。　　In　man；　talent　varies；　and　the　mind　wavers；　consequently；　his　will　is　multiform　and　vague。　　He　seeks　society；　but　dislikes　constraint　and　monotony；　he　is　an　imitator；　but　fond　of　his　own　ideas；　and　passionately　in　love　with　his　works。

If；　like　the　bees；　every　man　were　born　possessed　of　talent；　perfect　knowledge　of　certain　kinds；　and；　in　a　word；　an　innate　acquaintance　with　the　functions　he　has　to　perform；　but　destitute　of　reflective　and　reasoning　faculties；　society　would　organize　itself。　　We　should　see　one　man　plowing　a　field；　another　building　houses；　this　one　forging　metals；　that　one　cutting　clothes；　and　still　others　storing　the　products；　and　superintending　their　distribution。　　Each　one；　without　inquiring　as　to　the　object　of　his　labor；　and　without　troubling　himself　about　the　extent　of　his　task；　would　obey　orders；　bring　his　product；　receive　his　salary；　and　would　then　rest　for　a　time；　keeping　meanwhile　no　accounts；　envious　of　nobody；　and　satisfied　with　the　distributor；　who　never　would　be　unjust　to　any　one。　　Kings　would　govern；　but　would　not　reign；　for　to　reign　is　to　be　a　_proprietor　a　l'engrais_；　as　Bonaparte　said：　and　having　no　commands　to　give；　since　all　would　be　at　their　posts；　they　would　serve　rather　as　rallying　centres　than　as　authorities　or　counsellors。　　It　would　be　a　state　of　ordered　communism；　but　not　a　society　entered　into　deliberately　and　freely。

But　man　acquires　skill　only　by　observation　and　experiment。　　He　reflects；　then；　since　to　observe　and　experiment　is　to　reflect；　he　reasons；　since　he　cannot　help　reasoning。　　In　reflecting；　he　becomes　deluded；　in　reasoning；　he　makes　mistakes；　and；　thinking　himself　right；　persists　in　them。　　He　is　wedded　to　his　opinions；　he　esteems　himself；　and　despises　others。　　Consequently；　he　isolates　himself；　for　he　could　not　submit　to　the　majority　without　renouncing　his　will　and　his　reason；that　is；　without　disowning　himself；　which　is　impossible。　　And　this　isolation；　this　intellectual　egotism；　this　individuality　of　opinion；　lasts　until　the　truth　is　demonstrated　to　him　by　observation　and　experience。　A　final　illustration　will　make　these　facts　still　clearer。

If　to　the　blind　but　convergent　and　harmonious　instincts　of　a　swarm　of　bees　should　be　suddenly　added　reflection　and　judgment；　the　little　society　could　not　long　exist。　　In　the　first　place；　the　bees　would　not　fail　to　try　some　new　industrial　process；　for　instance；　that　of　making　their　cells　round　or　square。　　All　sorts　of　systems　and　inventions　would　be　tried；　until　long　experience；　aided　by　geometry；　should　show　them　that　the　hexagonal　shape　is　the　best。　　Then　insurrections　would　occur。　　The　drones　would　be　told　to　provide　for　themselves；　and　the　queens　to　labor；　jealousy　would　spread　among　the　laborers；　discords　would　burst　forth；　soon　each　one　would　want　to　produce　on　his　own　account；　and　finally　the　hive　would　be　abandoned；　and　the　bees　would　perish。　　Evil　would　be　introduced　into　the　honey…producing　republic　by　the　power　of　reflection；the　very　faculty　which　ought　to　constitute　its　glory。

Thus；　moral　evil；　or；　in　this　case；　disorder　in　society；　is　naturally　explained　by　our　power　of　reflection。　　The　mother　of　poverty；　crime；　insurrection；　and　war　was　inequality　of　conditions；　which　was　the　daughter　of　property；　which　was　born　of　selfishness；　which　was　engendered　by　private　opinion；　which　descended　in　a　direct　line　from　the　autocracy　of　reason。　　Man；　in　his　infancy；　is　neither　criminal　nor　barbarous；　but　ignorant　and　inexperienced。　　Endowed　with　imperious　instincts　which　are　under　the　control　of　his　reasoning　faculty；　at　first　he　reflects　but　little；　and　reasons　inaccurately；　then；　benefiting　by　his　mistakes；　he　rectifies　his　ideas；　and　perfects　his　reason。　　In　the　first　place；　it　is　the　savage　sacrificing　all　his　possessions　for　a　trinket；　and　then　repenting　and　weeping；　it　is　Esau　selling　his　birthright　for　a　mess　of　pottage；　and　afterwards　wishing　to　cancel　the　bargain；　it　is　the　civilized　workman　laboring　in　insecurity；　and　continually　demanding　that　his　wages　be　increased；　neither　he　nor　his　employer　understanding　that；　in　the　absence　of　equality；　any　salary；　however　large；　is　always　insufficient。　　Then　it　is　Naboth　dying　to　defend　his　inheritance；　Cato　tearing　out　his　entrails　that　he　might　not　be　enslaved；　Socrates　drinking　the　fatal　cup　in　defence　of　liberty　of　thought；　it　is　the　third　estate　of　'89　reclaiming　its　liberty：　soon　it　will　be　the　people　demanding　equality　of　wages　and　an　equal　division　of　the　means　of　production。

Man　is　born　a　social　being；that　is；　he　seeks　equality　and　justice　in　all　his　relations；　but　he　loves　independence　and　praise。　　The　difficulty　of　satisfying　these　various　desires　at　the　same　time　is　the　primary　cause　of　the　despotism　of　the　will；　and　the　appropriation　which　results　from　it。　　On　the　other　hand；　man　always　needs　a　market　for　his　products；　unable　to　compare　values　of　different　kinds；　he　is　satisfied　to　judge　approximately；　according　to　his　passion　and　caprice；　and　he　engages　in　dishonest　commerce；　which　always　results　in　wealth　and　poverty。　　Thus；　the　greatest　evils　which　man　suffers　arise　from　the　misuse　of　his　social　nature；　of　this　same　justice　of　which　he　is　so　proud；　and　which　he　applies　with　such　deplorable　ignorance。

The　practice　of　justice　is　a　science　which；　when　once　discovered　and　diffused；　will　sooner　or　later　put　an　end　to　social　disorder；　by　teaching　us　our　rights　and　duties。

This　progressive　and　painful　education　of　our　instinct；　this　slow　and　imperceptible　transformation　of　our　spontaneous　perceptions　into　deliberate　knowledge；　does　not　take　place　among　the　animals；　whose　instincts　remain　fixed；　and　never　become　enlightened。


〃According　to　Frederic　Cuvier；　who　has　so　clearly　distinguished　between　instinct　and　intelligence　in　animals；　‘instinct　is　a　natural　and　inherent　faculty；　like　feeling；　irritability；　or　intelligence。　　The　wolf　and　the　fox　who　recognize　the　traps　in　which　they　have　been　caught；　and　who　avoid　them；　the　dog　and　the　horse；　who　understand　the　meaning　of　several　of　our　words；　and　who　obey　us；thereby　show　_intelligence_。　　The　dog　who　hides　the　remains　of　his　dinner；　the　bee　who　constructs　his　cell；　the　bird　who　builds　his　nest；　act　only　from　_instinct_。　　Even　man　has　instincts：　it　is　a　special　instinct　which　leads　the　new…born　child　to　suck。　　But；　in　man；　almost　every　thing　is　accomplished　by　intelligence；　and　intelligence　supplements　instinct。　　The　opposite　is　true　of　animals：　their　instinct　is　given　them　as　a　supplement　to　their　intelligence。'〃Flourens：　　Analytical　Summary　of　the　Observations　of　F。　Cuvier。

〃We　can　form　a　clear　idea　of　instinct　only　by　admitting　that　animals　have　in　their　_sensorium_；　images　or　innate　and　constant　sensations；　which　influence　their　actions　in　the　same　manner　that　ordinary　and　accidental　sensations　commonly　do。　　It　is　a　sort　of　dream；　or　vision；　which　always　follows　them　and　in　all　which　relates　to　instinct　they　may　be　regarded　as　somnambulists。〃F。　Cuvier：　　Introduction　to　the　Animal　Kingdom。


Intelligence　and　instinct　being　common；　then；　though　in　different　degrees；　to　animals　and　man；　what　is　the　distinguishing　characteristic　of　the　latter？　　According　to　F。　Cuvier；　it　is　REFLECTION　OR　THE　POWER　OF　INTELLECTUALLY　CONSIDERING　OUR　OWN　MODIFICATIONS　BY　A　SURVEY　OF　OURSELVES。　　　　This　lacks　clearness；　and　requires　an　explanation。

If　we　grant　intelligence　to　animals；　we　must　also　grant　them；　in　some　degree；　reflection；　for；　the　first　cannot　exist　without　the　second；　as　F。　Cuvier　himself　has　proved　by　numerous　examples。　　But　notice　that　the　learned　observer　defines　the　kind　of　reflection　which　distinguishes　us　from　the　animals　as　the　POWER　OF　CONSIDERING　OUR　OWN　MODIFICATIONS。　　This　I　shall　endeavour　to　interpret；　by　developing　to　the　best　of　my　ability　the　laconism　of　the　philosophical　naturalist。

The　intelligence　acquired　by　animals　never　modifies　the　operations　which　they　perform　by　instinct：　it　is　given　them　only　as　a　provision　against　unexpected　accidents　which　might　disturb　these　operations。　　In　man；　on　the　contrary；　instinctive　action　is　constantly　changing　into　deliberate　action。　　Thus；　man　is　social　by　instinct；　and　is　every　day　becoming　social　by　reflection　and　choice。　　At　first；　he　formed　his　words　by　instinct；＇1＇　he　was　a　poet　by　inspiration：　to…day；　he　makes　grammar　a　science；　and　poetry　an　art。　　His　conception　of　God　and　a　future　life　is　spontaneous　and　instinctive；　and　his　expressions　of　this　conception　have　been；　by　turns；　monstrous；　eccentric；　beautiful；　comforting；　and　terrible。　　All　these　different　creeds；　at　which　the　frivolous　irreligion　of　the　eighteenth　century　mocked；　are　modes　of　expression　of　the　religious　sentiment。　　Some　day；　man　will　explain　to　himself　the　character　of　the　God　whom　he　believes　in；　and　the　nature　of　that　other　world　to　which　his　soul　aspires。

＇1＇　　〃The　problem　of　the　origin　of　language　is　solved　by　the　distinction　made　by　Frederic　Cuvier　between　instinct　and　intelligence。　　Language　is　not　a　premeditated；　arbitrary；　or　conventional　device；　nor　is　it　communicated　or　revealed　to　us　by　God。　　Language　is　an　instinctive　and　unpremeditated　creation　of　man；　as　the　hive　is　of　the　bee。　　In　this　sense；　it　may　be　said　that　language　is　not　the　work　of　man；　since　it　is　not　the　work　of　his　mind。　　Further；　the　mechanism　of　language　seems　more　wonderful　and　ingenious　when　it　is　not　regarded　as　the　result　of　reflection。　　This　fact　is　one　of　the　most　curious　and　indisputable　which　philology　has　observed。　　See；　among　other　works；　a　Latin　essay　by　F。　G。　Bergmann　（Strasbourg；　1839）；　in　which　the　learned　author　explains　how　the　phonetic　germ　is　born　of　sensation；　how　language　passes　through　three　successive　stages　of　development；　why　man；　endowed　at　birth　with　the　instinctive　faculty　of　creating　a　language；　loses　this　faculty　as　fast　as　his　mind　develops；　and　that　the　study　of　languages　is　real　natural　history；in　fact；　a　science。　　France　possesses　to…day　several　philologists　of　the　first　rank；　endowed　with　rare　talents　and　deep　philosophic　insight；modest　savants　developing　a　science　almost　without　the　knowledge　of　the　public；　devoting　themselves　to　studies　which　are　scornfully　looked　down　upon；　and　seeming　to　shun　applause　as　much　as　others　seek　it。〃




All　that　he　does　from　instinct　man　despises；　or；　if　he　admires　it；　it　is　as　Nature's　work；　not　as　his　own。　　This　explains　the　obscurity　which　surrounds　the　names　of　early　inventors；　it　explains　also　our　indifference　to　religious　matters；　and　the　ridicule　heaped　upon　religious　customs。　　Man　esteems　only　the　products　of　reflection　and　of　reason。　　The　most　wonderful　works　of　instinct　are；　in　his　eyes；　only　lucky　GOD…SENDS；　he　reserves　the　name　DISCOVERYI　had　almost　said　creationfor　the　works　of　in