what is property-第6章

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o　the　original　text　carefully　reviewed　and　corrected；　numerous　explanatory　notes　and　some　〃Tidings　of　the　Revolution。〃　　In　these　tidings；　which　form　a　sort　of　review　of　the　progress　of　ideas　in　Europe；　Proudhon　sorrowfully　asserts　that；　after　having　for　a　long　time　marched　at　the　head　of　the　progressive　nations；　France　has　become；　without　appearing　to　suspect　it；　the　most　retrogressive　of　nations；　and　he　considers　her　more　than　once　as　seriously　threatened　with　moral　death。

The　Italian　war　led　him　to　write　a　new　work；　which　he　published　in　1861；　entitled　〃War　and　Peace。〃　　This　work；　in　which；　running　counter　to　a　multitude　of　ideas　accepted　until　then　without　examination；　he　pronounced　for　the　first　time　against　the　restoration　of　an　aristocratic　and　priestly　Poland；　and　against　the　establishment　of　a　unitary　government　in　Italy；　created　for　him　a　multitude　of　enemies。　　Most　of　his　friends；　disconcerted　by　his　categorical　affirmation　of　a　right　of　force；　notified　him　that　they　decidedly　disapproved　of　his　new　publication。　　〃You　see；〃　triumphantly　cried　those　whom　he　had　always　combated；　〃this　man　is　only　a　sophist。〃

Led　by　his　previous　studies　to　test　every　thing　by　the　question　of　right；　Proudhon　asks；　in　his　〃War　and　Peace；〃　whether　there　is　a　real　right　of　which　war　is　the　vindication；　and　victory　the　demonstration。　　This　right；　which　he　roughly　calls　the　right　of　the　strongest　or　the　right　of　force；　and　which　is；　after　all；　only　the　right　of　the　most　worthy　to　the　preference　in　certain　definite　cases；　exists；　says　Proudhon；　independently　of　war。　　It　cannot　be　legitimately　vindicated　except　where　necessity　clearly　demands　the　subordination　of　one　will　to　another；　and　within　the　limits　in　which　it　exists；　that　is；　without　ever　involving　the　enslavement　of　one　by　the　other。　　Among　nations；　the　right　of　the　majority；　which　is　only　a　corollary　of　the　right　of　force；　is　as　unacceptable　as　universal　monarchy。　　Hence；　until　equilibrium　is　established　and　recognized　between　States　or　national　forces；　there　must　be　war。　　War；　says　Proudhon；　is　not　always　necessary　to　determine　which　side　is　the　strongest；　and　he　has　no　trouble　in　proving　this　by　examples　drawn　from　the　family；　the　workshop；　and　elsewhere。　　Passing　then　to　the　study　of　war；　he　proves　that　it　by　no　means　corresponds　in　practice　to　that　which　it　ought　to　be　according　to　his　theory　of　the　right　of　force。　　The　systematic　horrors　of　war　naturally　lead　him　to　seek　a　cause　for　it　other　than　the　vindication　of　this　right；　and　then　only　does　the　economist　take　it　upon　himself　to　denounce　this　cause　to　those　who；　like　himself；　want　peace。　　The　necessity　of　finding　abroad　a　compensation　for　the　misery　resulting　in　every　nation　from　the　absence　of　economical　equilibrium；　is；　according　to　Proudhon；　the　ever　real；　though　ever　concealed；　cause　of　war。　　The　pages　devoted　to　this　demonstration　and　to　his　theory　of　poverty；　which　he　clearly　distinguishes　from　misery　and　pauperism；　shed　entirely　new　light　upon　the　philosophy　of　history。　　As　for　the　author's　conclusion；　it　is　a　very　simple　one。　　Since　the　treaty　of　Westphalia；　and　especially　since　the　treaties　of　1815；　equilibrium　has　been　the　international　law　of　Europe。　　It　remains　now；　not　to　destroy　it；　but；　while　maintaining　it；　to　labor　peacefully；　in　every　nation　protected　by　it；　for　the　equilibrium　of　economical　forces。　　The　last　line　of　the　book；　evidently　written　to　check　imperial　ambition；　is：　　〃Humanity　wants　no　more　war。〃

In　1861；　after　Garibaldi's　expedition　and　the　battle　of　Castelfidardo；　Proudhon　immediately　saw　that　the　establishment　of　Italian　unity　would　be　a　severe　blow　to　European　equilibrium。　　It　was　chiefly　in　order　to　maintain　this　equilibrium　that　he　pronounced　so　energetically　in　favor　of　Italian　federation；　even　though　it　should　be　at　first　only　a　federation　of　monarchs。　　In　vain　was　it　objected　that；　in　being　established　by　France；　Italian　unity　would　break　European　equilibrium　in　our　favor。　　Proudhon；　appealing　to　history；　showed　that　every　State　which　breaks　the　equilibrium　in　its　own　favor　only　causes　the　other　States　to　combine　against　it；　and　thereby　diminishes　its　influence　and　power。　　He　added　that；　nations　being　essentially　selfish；　Italy　would　not　fail；　when　opportunity　offered；　to　place　her　interest　above　her　gratitude。

To　maintain　European　equilibrium　by　diminishing　great　States　and　multiplying　small　ones；　to　unite　the　latter　in　organized　federations；　not　for　attack；　but　for　defence；　and　with　these　federations；　which；　if　they　were　not　republican　already；　would　quickly　become　so；　to　hold　in　check　the　great　military　monarchies；such；　in　the　beginning　of　1861；　was　the　political　programme　of　Proudhon。

The　object　of　the　federations；　he　said；　will　be　to　guarantee；　as　far　as　possible；　the　beneficent　reign　of　peace；　and　they　will　have　the　further　effect　of　securing　in　every　nation　the　triumph　of　liberty　over　despotism。　　Where　the　largest　unitary　State　is；　there　liberty　is　in　the　greatest　danger；　further；　if　this　State　be　democratic；　despotism　without　the　counterpoise　of　majorities　is　to　be　feared。　　With　the　federation；　it　is　not　so。　　The　universal　suffrage　of　the　federal　State　is　checked　by　the　universal　suffrage　of　the　federated　States；　and　the　latter　is　offset　in　its　turn　by　PROPERTY；　the　stronghold　of　liberty；　which　it　tends；　not　to　destroy；　but　to　balance　with　the　institutions　of　MUTUALISM。

All　these　ideas；　and　many　others　which　were　only　hinted　at　in　his　work　on　〃War　and　Peace；〃　were　developed　by　Proudhon　in　his　subsequent　publications；　one　of　which　has　for　its　motto；　〃Reforms　always；　Utopias　never。〃　　The　thinker　had　evidently　finished　his　evolution。

The　Council　of　State　of　the　canton　of　Vaud　having　offered　prizes　for　essays　on　the　question　of　taxation；　previously　discussed　at　a　congress　held　at　Lausanne；　Proudhon　entered　the　ranks　and　carried　off　the　first　prize。　　His　memoir　was　published　in　1861　under　the　title　of　〃The　Theory　of　Taxation。〃

About　the　same　time；　he　wrote　at　Brussels；　in　〃L'Office　de　Publicite；〃　some　remarkable　articles　on　the　question　of　literary　property；　which　was　discussed　at　a　congress　held　in　Belgium；　These　articles　must　not　be　confounded　with　〃Literary　Majorats；〃　a　more　complete　work　on　the　same　subject；　which　was　published　in　1863；　soon　after　his　return　to　France。

Arbitrarily　excepted　from　the　amnesty　in　1859；　Proudhon　was　pardoned　two　years　later　by　a　special　act。　　He　did　not　wish　to　take　advantage　of　this　favor；　and　seemed　resolved　to　remain　in　Belgium　until　the　2d　of　June；　1863；　the　time　when　he　was　to　acquire　the　privilege　of　prescription；　when　an　absurd　and　ridiculous　riot；　excited　in　Brussels　by　an　article　published　by　him　on　federation　and　unity　in　Italy；　induced　him　to　hasten　his　return　to　France。　　Stones　were　thrown　against　the　house　in　which　he　lived；　in　the　Faubourg　d'Ixelles。　　After　having　placed　his　wife　and　daughters　in　safety　among　his　friends　at　Brussels；　he　arrived　in　Paris　in　September；　1862；　and　published　there；　〃Federation　and　Italian　Unity；〃　a　pamphlet　which　naturally　commences　with　the　article　which　served　as　a　pretext　for　the　rioters　in　Brussels。

Among　the　works　begun　by　Proudhon　while　in　Belgium；　which　death　did　not　allow　him　to　finish；　we　ought　to　mention　a　〃History　of　Poland；〃　which　will　be　published　later；　and；　〃The　Theory　of　Property；〃　which　appeared　in　1865；　before　〃The　Gospels　Annotated；〃　and　after　the　volume　entitled　〃The　Principle　of　Art　and　its　Social　Destiny。〃

The　publications　of　Proudhon；　in　1863；　were：　1。　〃Literary　Majorats：　　An　Examination　of　a　Bill　having　for　its　object　the　Creation　of　a　Perpetual　Monopoly　for　the　Benefit　of　Authors；　Inventors；　and　Artists；〃　2。　〃The　Federative　Principle　and　the　Necessity　of　Re…establishing　the　Revolutionary　party；〃　3。　〃The　Sworn　Democrats　and　the　Refractories；〃　4。　〃Whether　the　Treaties　of　1815　have　ceased　to　exist？　　Acts　of　the　Future　Congress。〃

The　disease　which　was　destined　to　kill　him　grew　worse　and　worse；　but　Proudhon　labored　constantly！　。　。　。　　A　series　of　articles；　published　in　1864　in　〃Le　Messager　de　Paris；〃　have　been　collected　in　a　pamphlet　under　the　title　of　〃New　Observations　on　Italian　Unity。〃　　He　hoped　to　publish　during　the　same　year　his　work　on　〃The　Political　Capacity　of　the　Working　Classes；〃　but　was　unable　to　write　the　last　chapter。　。　。　。　　He　grew　weaker　continually。　　His　doctor　prescribed　rest。　　In　the　month　of　August　he　went　to　Franche…Comte；　where　he　spent　a　month。　　Having　returned　to　Paris；　he　resumed　his　labor　with　difficulty。　。　。　。　　From　the　month　of　December　onwards；　the　heart　disease　made　rapid　progress；　the　oppression　became　insupportable；　his　legs　were　swollen；　and　he　could　not　sleep。　。　。　。

On　the　19th　of　January；　1865；　he　died；　towards　two　o'clock　in　the　morning；　in　the　arms　of　his　wife；　his　sister…in…law；　and　the　friend　who　writes　these　lines。　。　。　。

The　publication　of　his　correspondence；　to　which　his　daughter　Catherine　is　faithfully　devoted；　will　tend；　no　doubt；　to　increase　his　reputation　as　a　thinker；　as　a　writer；　and　as　an　honest　man。　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　J。　A。　LANGLOIS。


PREFACE。

The　following　letter　served　as　a　preface　to　the　first　edition　of　this　memoir：


〃To　the　Members　of　the　Academy　of　Besancon　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　〃PARIS；　June　30；　1840。


〃GENTLEMEN；In　the　course　of　your　debate　of　the　9th　of　May；　1833；　in　regard　to　the　triennial　pension　established　by　Madame　Suard；　you　expressed　the　following　wish：

〃‘The　Academy　requests　the　titulary　to　present　it　annually；　during　the　first　fortnight　in　July；　with　a　succinct　and　logical　statement　of　the　various　studies　which　he　has　pursued　during　the　year　which　has　just　expired。'

〃I　now　propose；　gentlemen；　to　discharge　this　duty。

〃When　I　solicited　your　votes；　I　boldly　avowed　my　intention　to　bend　my　efforts　to　the　discovery　of　some　means　of　AMELIORATING　　THE　PHYSICAL；　MORAL；　AND　INTELLECTUAL　CONDITION　OF　THE　MERE　NUMEROUS　AND　POORER　CLASSES。　　This　idea；　foreign　as　it　may　have　seemed　to　the　object　of　my　candidacy；　you　received　favorably；　and；　by　the　precious　distinction　with　which　it　has　been　your　pleasure　to　honor　me；　you　changed　this　formal　offer　into　an　inviolable　and　sacred　obligation。　　Thenceforth　I　understood　with　how　worthy　and　honorable　a　society　I　had　to　deal：　my　regard　for　its　enlightenment；　my　recognition　of　its　benefits；　my　enthusiasm　for　its　glory；　were　unbounded。

〃Convinced　at　once　that；　in　order　to　break　loose　from　the　beaten　paths　of　opinions　and　systems；　it　was　necessary　to　proceed　in　my　study　of　man　and　society　by　scientific　methods；　and　in　a　rigorous　manner；　I　devoted　one　year　to　philology　and　grammar；　linguistics；　or　the　natural　history　of　speech；　being；　of　all　the　sciences；　that　which　was　best　suited　to　the　character　of　my　mind；　seemed　to　bear　the　closest　relation　to　the　researches　which　I　was　about　to　commence。　　A　treatise；　written　at　this　period　upon　one　of　the　most　interesting　questions　of　comparative　grammar；＇1＇　if　it　did　not　reveal　the　astonishing　success；　at　least　bore　witness　to　the　thoroughness；　of　my　labors。

＇1＇　〃An　Inquiry　into　Grammatical　Classifications。〃　　By　P。　J。　Proudhon。　　A　treatise　which　received　honorable　mention　from　the　Academy　of　Inscriptions；　May　4；　1839。　　Out　of　print。




〃Since　that　time；　metaphysics　and