a history of science-1-第1章

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A　History　of　Science；　Volume　1
by　Henry　Smith　Williams；　　　M。D。；　LL。D。
ASSISTED　BY
EDWARD　H。　WILLIAMS；　M。D。
IN　FIVE　VOLUMES
VOLUME　I。
THE　BEGINNINGS　OF　SCIENCE


BOOK　I。
CONTENTS
CHAPTER　I。　PREHISTORIC　SCIENCE
CHAPTER　II。　EGYPTIAN　SCIENCE
CHAPTER　III。　SCIENCE　OF　BABYLONIA　AND　ASSYRIA
CHAPTER　IV。　THE　DEVELOPMENT　OF　THE　ALPHABET
CHAPTER　V。　　THE　BEGINNINGS　OF　GREEK　SCIENCE
CHAPTER　VI。　THE　EARLY　GREEK　PHILOSOPHERS　IN　ITALY
CHAPTER　VII。　GREEK　SCIENCE　IN　THE　EARLY　ATTIC　PERIOD
CHAPTER　VIII。　POST…SOCRATIC　SCIENCE　AT　ATHENS
CHAPTER　IX。　GREEK　SCIENCE　OF　THE　ALEXANDRIAN　OR　HELLENISTIC　
PERIOD
CHAPTER　X。　SCIENCE　OF　THE　ROMAN　PERIOD
CHAPTER　XI。　A　RETROSPECTIVE　GLANCE　AT　CLASSICAL　SCIENCE
APPENDIX

A　HISTORY　OF　SCIENCE　BOOK　I　Should　the　story　that　is　about　to　be　unfolded　be　found　to　lack　interest；　the　writers　must　stand　convicted　of　unpardonable　lack　of　art。　Nothing　but　dulness　in　the　telling　could　mar　the　story；　for　in　itself　it　is　the　record　of　the　growth　of　those　ideas　that　have　made　our　race　and　its　civilization　what　they　are；　of　ideas　instinct　with　human　interest；　vital　with　meaning　for　our　race；　fundamental　in　their　influence　on　human　development；　part　and　parcel　of　the　mechanism　of　human　thought　on　the　one　hand；　and　of　practical　civilization　on　the　other。　Such　a　phrase　as　〃fundamental　principles〃　may　seem　at　first　thought　a　hard　saying；　but　the　idea　it　implies　is　less　repellent　than　the　phrase　itself；　for　the　fundamental　principles　in　question　are　so　closely　linked　with　the　present　interests　of　every　one　of　us　that　they　lie　within　the　grasp　of　every　average　man　and　womannay；　of　every　well…developed　boy　and　girl。　These　principles　are　not　merely　the　stepping…stones　to　culture；　the　prerequisites　of　knowledgethey　are；　in　themselves；　an　essential　part　of　the　knowledge　of　every　cultivated　person。　It　is　our　task；　not　merely　to　show　what　these　principles　are；　but　to　point　out　how　they　have　been　discovered　by　our　predecessors。　We　shall　trace　the　growth　of　these　ideas　from　their　first　vague　beginnings。　We　shall　see　how　vagueness　of　thought　gave　way　to　precision；　how　a　general　truth；　once　grasped　and　formulated；　was　found　to　be　a　stepping…stone　to　other　truths。　We　shall　see　that　there　are　no　isolated　facts；　no　isolated　principles；　in　nature；　that　each　part　of　our　story　is　linked　by　indissoluble　bands　with　that　which　goes　before；　and　with　that　which　comes　after。　For　the　most　part　the　discovery　of　this　principle　or　that　in　a　given　sequence　is　no　accident。　Galileo　and　Keppler　must　precede　Newton。　Cuvier　and　Lyall　must　come　before　Darwin；Which；　after　all；　is　no　more　than　saying　that　in　our　Temple　of　Science；　as　in　any　other　piece　of　architecture；　the　foundation　must　precede　the　superstructure。　We　shall　best　understand　our　story　of　the　growth　of　science　if　we　think　of　each　new　principle　as　a　stepping…stone　which　must　fit　into　its　own　particular　niche；　and　if　we　reflect　that　the　entire　structure　of　modern　civilization　would　be　different　from　what　it　is；　and　less　perfect　than　it　is；　had　not　that　particular　stepping…stone　been　found　and　shaped　and　placed　in　position。　Taken　as　a　whole；　our　stepping…stones　lead　us　up　and　up　towards　the　alluring　heights　of　an　acropolis　of　knowledge；　on　which　stands　the　Temple　of　Modern　Science。　The　story　of　the　building　of　this　wonderful　structure　is　in　itself　fascinating　and　beautiful。

I。　PREHISTORIC　SCIENCE　To　speak　of　a　prehistoric　science　may　seem　like　a　contradiction　of　terms。　The　word　prehistoric　seems　to　imply　barbarism；　while　science；　clearly　enough；　seems　the　outgrowth　of　civilization；　but　rightly　considered；　there　is　no　contradiction。　For；　on　the　one　hand；　man　had　ceased　to　be　a　barbarian　long　before　the　beginning　of　what　we　call　the　historical　period；　and；　on　the　other　hand；　science；　of　a　kind；　is　no　less　a　precursor　and　a　cause　of　civilization　than　it　is　a　consequent。　To　get　this　clearly　in　mind；　we　must　ask　ourselves：　What；　then；　is　science？　The　word　runs　glibly　enough　upon　the　tongue　of　our　every…day　speech；　but　it　is　not　often；　perhaps；　that　they　who　use　it　habitually　ask　themselves　just　what　it　means。　Yet　the　answer　is　not　difficult。　A　little　attention　will　show　that　science；　as　the　word　is　commonly　used；　implies　these　things：　first；　the　gathering　of　knowledge　through　observation；　second；　the　classification　of　such　knowledge；　and　through　this　classification；　the　elaboration　of　general　ideas　or　principles。　In　the　familiar　definition　of　Herbert　Spencer；　science　is　organized　knowledge。　Now　it　is　patent　enough；　at　first　glance；　that　the　veriest　savage　must　have　been　an　observer　of　the　phenomena　of　nature。　But　it　may　not　be　so　obvious　that　he　must　also　have　been　a　classifier　of　his　observationsan　organizer　of　knowledge。　Yet　the　more　we　consider　the　case；　the　more　clear　it　will　become　that　the　two　methods　are　too　closely　linked　together　to　be　dissevered。　To　observe　outside　phenomena　is　not　more　inherent　in　the　nature　of　the　mind　than　to　draw　inferences　from　these　phenomena。　A　deer　passing　through　the　forest　scents　the　ground　and　detects　a　certain　odor。　A　sequence　of　ideas　is　generated　in　the　mind　of　the　deer。　Nothing　in　the　deer's　experience　can　produce　that　odor　but　a　wolf；　therefore　the　scientific　inference　is　drawn　that　wolves　have　passed　that　way。　But　it　is　a　part　of　the　deer's　scientific　knowledge；　based　on　previous　experience；　individual　and　racial；　that　wolves　are　dangerous　beasts；　and　so；　combining　direct　observation　in　the　present　with　the　application　of　a　general　principle　based　on　past　experience；　the　deer　reaches　the　very　logical　conclusion　that　it　may　wisely　turn　about　and　run　in　another　direction。　All　this　implies；　essentially；　a　comprehension　and　use　of　scientific　principles；　and；　strange　as　it　seems　to　speak　of　a　deer　as　possessing　scientific　knowledge；　yet　there　is　really　no　absurdity　in　the　statement。　The　deer　does　possess　scientific　knowledge；　knowledge　differing　in　degree　only；　not　in　kind；　from　the　knowledge　of　a　Newton。　Nor　is　the　animal；　within　the　range　of　its　intelligence；　less　logical；　less　scientific　in　the　application　of　that　knowledge；　than　is　the　man。　The　animal　that　could　not　make　accurate　scientific　observations　of　its　surroundings；　and　deduce　accurate　scientific　conclusions　from　them；　would　soon　pay　the　penalty　of　its　lack　of　logic。　What　is　true　of　man's　precursors　in　the　animal　scale　is；　of　course；　true　in　a　wider　and　fuller　sense　of　man　himself　at　the　very　lowest　stage　of　his　development。　Ages　before　the　time　which　the　limitations　of　our　knowledge　force　us　to　speak　of　as　the　dawn　of　history；　man　had　reached　a　high　stage　of　development。　As　a　social　being；　he　had　developed　all　the　elements　of　a　primitive　civilization。　If；　for　convenience　of　classification；　we　speak　of　his　state　as　savage；　or　barbaric；　we　use　terms　which；　after　all；　are　relative；　and　which　do　not　shut　off　our　primitive　ancestors　from　a　tolerably　close　association　with　our　own　ideals。　We　know　that；　even　in　the　Stone　Age；　man　had　learned　how　to　domesticate　animals　and　make　them　useful　to　him；　and　that　he　had　also　learned　to　cultivate　the　soil。　Later　on；　doubtless　by　slow　and　painful　stages；　he　attained　those　wonderful　elements　of　knowledge　that　enabled　him　to　smelt　metals　and　to　produce　implements　of　bronze；　and　then　of　iron。　Even　in　the　Stone　Age　he　was　a　mechanic　of　marvellous　skill；　as　any　one　of　to…day　may　satisfy　himself　by　attempting　to　duplicate　such　an　implement　as　a　chipped　arrow…head。　And　a　barbarian　who　could　fashion　an　axe　or　a　knife　of　bronze　had　certainly　gone　far　in　his　knowledge　of　scientific　principles　and　their　practical　application。　The　practical　application　was；　doubtless；　the　only　thought　that　our　primitive　ancestor　had　in　mind；　quite　probably　the　question　as　to　principles　that　might　be　involved　troubled　him　not　at　all。　Yet；　in　spite　of　himself；　he　knew　certain　rudimentary　principles　of　science；　even　though　he　did　not　formulate　them。　Let　us　inquire　what　some　of　these　principles　are。　Such　an　inquiry　will；　as　it　were；　clear　the　ground　for　our　structure　of　science。　It　will　show　the　plane　of　knowledge　on　which　historical　investigation　begins。　Incidentally；　perhaps；　it　will　reveal　to　us　unsuspected　affinities　between　ourselves　and　our　remote　ancestor。　Without　attempting　anything　like　a　full　analysis；　we　may　note　in　passing；　not　merely　what　primitive　man　knew；　but　what　he　did　not　know；　that　at　least　a　vague　notion　may　be　gained　of　the　field　for　scientific　research　that　lay　open　for　historic　man　to　cultivate。

It　must　be　understood　that　the　knowledge　of　primitive　man；　as　we　are　about　to　outline　it；　is　inferential。　We　cannot　trace　the　development　of　these　principles；　much　less　can　we　say　who　discovered　them。　Some　of　them；　as　already　suggested；　are　man's　heritage　from　non…human　ancestors。　Others　can　only　have　been　grasped　by　him　after　he　had　reached　a　relatively　high　stage　of　human　development。　But　all　the　principles　here　listed　must　surely　have　been　parts　of　our　primitive　ancestor's　knowledge　before　those　earliest　days　of　Egyptian　and　Babylonian　civilization；　the　records　of　which　constitute　our　first　introduction　to　the　so…called　historical　period。　Taken　somewhat　in　the　order　of　their　probable　discovery；　the　scientific　ideas　of　primitive　man　may　be　roughly　listed　as　follows：　1。　Primitive　man　must　have　conceived　that　the　earth　is　flat　and　of　limitless　extent。　By　this　it　is　not　meant　to　imply　that　he　had　a　distinct　conception　of　infinity；　but；　for　that　matter；　it　cannot　be　said　that　any　one　to…day　has　a　conception　of　infinity　that　could　be　called　definite。　But；　reasoning　from　experience　and　the　reports　of　travellers；　there　was　nothing　to　suggest　to　early　man　the　limit　of　the　earth。　He　did；　indeed；　find　in　his　wanderings；　that　changed　climatic　conditions　barred　him　from　farther　progress；　but　beyond　the　farthest　reaches　of　his　migrations；　the　seemingly　flat　land…surfaces　and　water…surfaces　stretched　away　unbroken　and；　to　all　appearances；　without　end。　It　would　require　a　reach　of　the　philosophical　imagination　to　conceive　a　limit　to　the　earth；　and　while　such　imaginings　may　have　been　current　in　the　prehistoric　period；　we　can　have　no　proof　of　them；　and　we　may　well　postpone　consideration　of　man's　early　dreamings　as　to　the　shape　of　the　earth　until　we　enter　the　historical　epoch　where　we　stand　on　firm　ground。　2。　Primitive　man　must；　from　a　very　early　period；　have　observed　that　the　sun　gives　heat　and　light；　and　that　the　moon　and　stars　seem　to　give　light　only　and　no　heat。　It　required　but　a　slight　extension　of　this　observation　to　note　that　the　changing　phases　of　the　seasons　were　associated　with　the　seeming　approach　and　recession　of　the　sun。　This　observation；　however；　could　not　have　been　made　until　man　had　migrated　from　the　tropical　regions；　and　had　reached　a　stage　of　mechanical　development　enabling　him　to　live　in　subtropical　or　temperate　zones。　Even　then　it　is　conceivable　that　a　long　period　must　have　elapsed　before　a　direct　causal　relation　was　felt　to　exist　between　the　shifting　of　the　sun　and　the　shifting　of　the　seasons；　because；　as　every　one　knows；　the　periods　of　greatest　heat　in　summer　and　greatest　cold　in　winter　usually　come　some　weeks　after　the　time　of　the　solstices。　Yet；　the　fact　that　these　extremes　of　temperature　are　associated　in　some　way　with　the　change　of　the　sun's　place　in　the　heavens　must；　in　ti