a history of science-1-第10章

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！


to　do　service　for　years　in　the　Babylonian　computations　and　in　the　allied　computations　of　the　early　Hebrews。　The　lives　of　the　Hebrew　patriarchs；　for　example；　as　recorded　in　the　Bible；　are　perhaps　reckoned　in　lunar　〃years。〃　Divided　by　twelve；　the　〃years〃　of　Methuselah　accord　fairly　with　the　usual　experience　of　mankind。　Yet；　on　the　other　hand；　the　convenience　of　the　solar　year　in　computing　long　periods　of　time　was　not　unrecognized；　since　this　period　is　utilized　in　reckoning　the　reigns　of　the　Assyrian　kings。　It　may　be　added　that　the　reign　of　a　king　〃was　not　reckoned　from　the　day　of　his　accession；　but　from　the　Assyrian　new　year's　day；　either　before　or　after　the　day　of　accession。　There　does　not　appear　to　have　been　any　fixed　rule　as　to　which　new　year's　day　should　be　chosen；　but　from　the　number　of　known　cases；　it　appears　to　have　been　the　general　practice　to　count　the　reigning　years　from　the　new　year's　day　nearest　the　accession；　and　to　call　the　period　between　the　accession　day　and　the　first　new　year's　day　'the　beginning　of　the　reign；'　when　the　year　from　the　new　year's　day　was　called　the　first　year；　and　the　following　ones　were　brought　successively　from　it。　Notwithstanding；　in　the　dates　of　several　Assyrian　and　Babylonian　sovereigns　there　are　cases　of　the　year　of　accession　being　considered　as　the　first　year；　thus　giving　two　reckonings　for　the　reigns　of　various　monarchs；　among　others；　Shalmaneser；　Sennacherib；　Nebuchadrezzar。〃＇9＇　This　uncertainty　as　to　the　years　of　reckoning　again　emphasizes　the　fact　that　the　solar　year　did　not　have　for　the　Assyrian　chronology　quite　the　same　significance　that　it　has　for　us。　The　Assyrian　month　commenced　on　the　evening　when　the　new　moon　was　first　observed；　or；　in　case　the　moon　was　not　visible；　the　new　month　started　thirty　days　after　the　last　month。　Since　the　actual　lunar　period　is　about　twenty…nine　and　one…half　days；　a　practical　adjustment　was　required　between　the　months　themselves；　and　this　was　probably　effected　by　counting　alternate　months　as　Only　29　days　in　length。　Mr。　R。　Campbell　Thompson＇10＇　is　led　by　his　studies　of　the　astrological　tablets　to　emphasize　this　fact。　He　believes　that　〃the　object　of　the　astrological　reports　which　related　to　the　appearance　of　the　moon　and　sun　was　to　help　determine　and　foretell　the　length　of　the　lunar　month。〃　Mr。　Thompson　believes　also　that　there　is　evidence　to　show　that　the　interculary　month　was　added　at　a　period　less　than　six　years。　In　point　of　fact；　it　does　not　appear　to　be　quite　clearly　established　as　to　precisely　how　the　adjustment　of　days　with　the　lunar　months；　and　lunar　months　with　the　solar　year；　was　effected。　It　is　clear；　however；　according　to　Smith；　〃that　the　first　28　days　of　every　month　were　divided　into　four　weeks　of　seven　days　each；　the　seventh；　fourteenth；　twenty…first；　twenty…eighth　days　respectively　being　Sabbaths；　and　that　there　was　a　general　prohibition　of　work　on　these　days。〃　Here；　of　course；　is　the　foundation　of　the　Hebrew　system　of　Sabbatical　days　which　we　have　inherited。　The　sacredness　of　the　number　seven　itselfthe　belief　in　which　has　not　been　quite　shaken　off　even　to　this　day　was　deduced　by　the　Assyrian　astronomer　from　his　observation　of　the　seven　planetary　bodiesnamely；　Sin　（the　moon）；　Samas　（the　sun）；　Umunpawddu　（Jupiter）；　Dilbat　（Venus）；　Kaimanu　（Saturn）；　Gudud　（Mercury）；　Mustabarru…mutanu　（Mars）。＇11＇　Twelve　lunar　periods；　making　up　approximately　the　solar　year；　gave　peculiar　importance　to　the　number　twelve　also。　Thus　the　zodiac　was　divided　into　twelve　signs　which　astronomers　of　all　subsequent　times　have　continued　to　recognize；　and　the　duodecimal　system　of　counting　took　precedence　with　the　Babylonian　mathematicians　over　the　more　primitive　and；　as　it　seems　to　us；　more　satisfactory　decimal　system。　Another　discrepancy　between　the　Babylonian　and　Egyptian　years　appears　in　the　fact　that　the　Babylonian　new　year　dates　from　about　the　period　of　the　vernal　equinox　and　not　from　the　solstice。　Lockyer　associates　this　with　the　fact　that　the　periodical　inundation　of　the　Tigris　and　Euphrates　occurs　about　the　equinoctial　period；　whereas；　as　we　have　seen；　the　Nile　flood　comes　at　the　time　of　the　solstice。　It　is　but　natural　that　so　important　a　phenomenon　as　the　Nile　flood　should　make　a　strong　impression　upon　the　minds　of　a　people　living　in　a　valley。　The　fact　that　occasional　excessive　inundations　have　led　to　most　disastrous　results　is　evidenced　in　the　incorporation　of　stories　of　the　almost　total　destruction　of　mankind　by　such　floods　among　the　myth　tales　of　all　peoples　who　reside　in　valley　countries。　The　flooding　of　the　Tigris　and　Euphrates　had　not；　it　is　true；　quite　the　same　significance　for　the　Mesopotamians　that　the　Nile　flood　had　for　the　Egyptians。　Nevertheless　it　was　a　most　important　phenomenon；　and　may　very　readily　be　imagined　to　have　been　the　most　tangible　index　to　the　seasons。　But　in　recognizing　the　time　of　the　inundations　and　the　vernal　equinox；　the　Assyrians　did　not　dethrone　the　moon　from　its　accustomed　precedence；　for　the　year　was　reckoned　as　commencing　not　precisely　at　the　vernal　equinox；　but　at　the　new　moon　next　before　the　equinox。

ASTROLOGY　Beyond　marking　the　seasons；　the　chief　interests　that　actuated　the　Babylonian　astronomer　in　his　observations　were　astrological。　After　quoting　Diodorus　to　the　effect　that　the　Babylonian　priests　observed　the　position　of　certain　stars　in　order　to　cast　horoscopes；　Thompson　tells　us　that　from　a　very　early　day　the　very　name　Chaldean　became　synonymous　with　magician。　He　adds　that　〃from　Mesopotamia；　by　way　of　Greece　and　Rome；　a　certain　amount　of　Babylonian　astrology　made　its　way　among　the　nations　of　the　west；　and　it　is　quite　probable　that　many　superstitions　which　we　commonly　record　as　the　peculiar　product　of　western　civilization　took　their　origin　from　those　of　the　early　dwellers　on　the　alluvial　lands　of　Mesopotamia。　One　Assurbanipal；　king　of　Assyria　B。C。　668…626；　added　to　the　royal　library　at　Nineveh　his　contribution　of　tablets；　which　included　many　series　of　documents　which　related　exclusively　to　the　astrology　of　the　ancient　Babylonians；　who　in　turn　had　borrowed　it　with　modifications　from　the　Sumerian　invaders　of　the　country。　Among　these　must　be　mentioned　the　series　which　was　commonly　called　'the　Day　of　Bel；'　and　which　was　decreed　by　the　learned　to　have　been　written　in　the　time　of　the　great　Sargon　I。；　king　of　Agade；　3800　B。C。　With　such　ancient　works　as　these　to　guide　them；　the　profession　of　deducing　omens　from　daily　events　reached　such　a　pitch　of　importance　in　the　last　Assyrian　Empire　that　a　system　of　making　periodical　reports　came　into　being。　By　these　the　king　was　informed　of　all　the　occurrences　in　the　heavens　and　on　earth；　and　the　results　of　astrological　studies　in　respect　to　after　events。　The　heads　of　the　astrological　profession　were　men　of　high　rank　and　position；　and　their　office　was　hereditary。　The　variety　of　information　contained　in　these　reports　is　best　gathered　from　the　fact　that　they　were　sent　from　cities　as　far　removed　from　each　other　as　Assur　in　the　north　and　Erech　in　the　south；　and　it　can　only　be　assumed　that　they　were　despatched　by　runners；　or　men　mounted　on　swift　horses。　As　reports　also　came　from　Dilbat；　Kutba；　Nippur；　and　Bursippa；　all　cities　of　ancient　foundation；　the　king　was　probably　well　acquainted　with　the　general　course　of　events　in　his　empire。〃＇12＇　From　certain　passages　in　the　astrological　tablets；　Thompson　draws　the　interesting　conclusion　that　the　Chaldean　astronomers　were　acquainted　with　some　kind　of　a　machine　for　reckoning　time。　He　finds　in　one　of　the　tablets　a　phrase　which　he　interprets　to　mean　measure…governor；　and　he　infers　from　this　the　existence　of　a　kind　of　a　calculator。　He　calls　attention　also　to　the　fact　that　Sextus　Empiricus＇13＇　states　that　the　clepsydra　was　known　to　the　Chaldeans；　and　that　Herodotus　asserts　that　the　Greeks　borrowed　certain　measures　of　time　from　the　Babylonians。　He　finds　further　corroboration　in　the　fact　that　the　Babylonians　had　a　time…measure　by　which　they　divided　the　day　and　the　night；　a　measure　called　kasbu；　which　contained　two　hours。　In　a　report　relating　to　the　day　of　the　vernal　equinox；　it　is　stated　that　there　are　six　kasbu　of　the　day　and　six　kasbu　of　the　night。　While　the　astrologers　deduced　their　omens　from　all　the　celestial　bodies　known　to　them；　they　chiefly　gave　attention　to　the　moon；　noting　with　great　care　the　shape　of　its　horns；　and　deducing　such　a　conclusion　as　that　〃if　the　horns　are　pointed　the　king　will　overcome　whatever　he　goreth；〃　and　that　〃when　the　moon　is　low　at　its　appearance；　the　submission　（of　the　people）　of　a　far　country　will　come。〃＇14＇　The　relations　of　the　moon　and　sun　were　a　source　of　constant　observation；　it　being　noted　whether　the　sun　and　moon　were　seen　together　above　the　horizon；　whether　one　set　as　the　other　rose；　and　the　like。　And　whatever　the　phenomena；　there　was　always；　of　course；　a　direct　association　between　such　phenomena　and　the　well…being　of　human　kindin　particular　the　king；　at　whose　instance；　and　doubtless　at　whose　expense；　the　observations　were　carried　out。　From　omens　associated　with　the　heavenly　bodies　it　is　but　a　step　to　omens　based　upon　other　phenomena　of　nature；　and　we；　shall　see　in　a　moment　that　the　Babylonian　prophets　made　free　use　of　their　opportunities　in　this　direction　also。　But　before　we　turn　from　the　field　of　astronomy；　it　will　be　well　to　inform　ourselves　as　to　what　system　the　Chaldean　astronomer　had　invented　in　explanation　of　the　mechanics　of　the　universe。　Our　answer　to　this　inquiry　is　not　quite　as　definite　as　could　be　desired；　the　vagueness　of　the　records；　no　doubt；　coinciding　with　the　like　vagueness　in　the　minds　of　the　Chaldeans　themselves。　So　far　as　we　can　interpret　the　somewhat　mystical　references　that　have　come　down　to　us；　however；　the　Babylonian　cosmology　would　seem　to　have　represented　the　earth　as　a　circular　plane　surrounded　by　a　great　circular　river；　beyond　which　rose　an　impregnable　barrier　of　mountains；　and　resting　upon　an　infinite　sea　of　waters。　The　material　vault　of　the　heavens　was　supposed　to　find　support　upon　the　outlying　circle　of　mountains。　But　the　precise　mechanism　through　which　the　observed　revolution　of　the　heavenly　bodies　was　effected　remains　here；　as　with　the　Egyptian　cosmology；　somewhat　conjectural。　The　simple　fact　would　appear　to　be　that；　for　the　Chaldeans　as　for　the　Egyptians；　despite　their　most　careful　observations　of　the　tangible　phenomena　of　the　heavens；　no　really　satisfactory　mechanical　conception　of　the　cosmos　was　attainable。　We　shall　see　in　due　course　by　what　faltering　steps　the　European　imagination　advanced　from　the　crude　ideas　of　Egypt　and　Babylonia　to　the　relatively　clear　vision　of　Newton　and　Laplace。

CHALDEAN　MAGIC　We　turn　now　from　the　field　of　the　astrologer　to　the　closely　allied　province　of　Chaldean　magica　province　which　includes　the　other；　which；　indeed；　is　so　all…　encompassing　as　scarcely　to　leave　any　phase　of　Babylonian　thought　outside　its　bounds。　The　tablets　having　to　do　with　omens；　exorcisms；　and　the　like　magic　practices　make　up　an　astonishingly　large　proportion　of　the　Babylonian　records。　In　viewing　them　it　is　hard　to　avoid　the　conclusion　that　the　superstitions　which　they　evidenced　absolutely　dominated　the　life　of　the　Babylonians　of　every　degree。　Yet　it　must　not　be　forgotten　that　the　greatest　inconsistencies　everywhere　exist　between　the　superstitious　beliefs　of　a　people　and　the　practical　observances　of　that　peo