a history of science-1-第15章

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this　is　seemingly　what　happened　in　the　final　development　of　the　art　of　writing。　For　while　the　Babylonians　and　Assyrians　rested　content　with　their　elaborate　syllabary；　a　nation　on　either　side　of　them；　geographically　speaking；　solved　the　problem；　which　they　perhaps　did　not　even　recognize　as　a　problem；　wrested　from　their　syllabary　its　secret　of　consonants　and　vowels；　and　by　adopting　an　arbitrary　sign　for　each　consonantal　sound；　produced　that　most　wonderful　of　human　inventions；　the　alphabet。　The　two　nations　credited　with　this　wonderful　achievement　are　the　Phoenicians　and　the　Persians。　But　it　is　not　usually　conceded　that　the　two　are　entitled　to　anything　like　equal　credit。　The　Persians；　probably　in　the　time　of　Cyrus　the　Great；　used　certain　characters　of　the　Babylonian　script　for　the　construction　of　an　alphabet；　but　at　this　time　the　Phoenician　alphabet　had　undoubtedly　been　in　use　for　some　centuries；　and　it　is　more　than　probable　that　the　Persian　borrowed　his　idea　of　an　alphabet　from　a　Phoenician　source。　And　that；　of　course；　makes　all　the　difference。　Granted　the　idea　of　an　alphabet；　it　requires　no　great　reach　of　constructive　genius　to　supply　a　set　of　alphabetical　characters；　though　even　here；　it　may　be　added　parenthetically；　a　study　of　the　development　of　alphabets　will　show　that　mankind　has　all　along　had　a　characteristic　propensity　to　copy　rather　than　to　invent。　Regarding　the　Persian　alphabet…maker；　then；　as　a　copyist　rather　than　a　true　inventor；　it　remains　to　turn　attention　to　the　Phoenician　source　whence；　as　is　commonly　believed；　the　original　alphabet　which　became　〃the　mother　of　all　existing　alphabets〃　came　into　being。　It　must　be　admitted　at　the　outset　that　evidence　for　the　Phoenician　origin　of　this　alphabet　is　traditional　rather　than　demonstrative。　The　Phoenicians　were　the　great　traders　of　antiquity；　undoubtedly　they　were　largely　responsible　for　the　transmission　of　the　alphabet　from　one　part　of　the　world　to　another；　once　it　had　been　invented。　Too　much　credit　cannot　be　given　them　for　this；　and　as　the　world　always　honors　him　who　makes　an　idea　fertile　rather　than　the　originator　of　the　idea；　there　can　be　little　injustice　in　continuing　to　speak　of　the　Phoenicians　as　the　inventors　of　the　alphabet。　But　the　actual　facts　of　the　case　will　probably　never　be　known。　For　aught　we　know；　it　may　have　been　some　dreamy…eyed　Israelite；　some　Babylonian　philosopher；　some　Egyptian　mystic；　perhaps　even　some　obscure　Cretan；　who　gave　to　the　hard…headed　Phoenician　trader　this　conception　of　a　dismembered　syllable　with　its　all…essential；　elemental；　wonder…working　consonant。　But　it　is　futile　now　to　attempt　even　to　surmise　on　such　unfathomable　details　as　these。　Suffice　it　that　the　analysis　was　made；　that　one　sign　and　no　more　was　adopted　for　each　consonantal　sound　of　the　Semitic　tongue；　and　that　the　entire　cumbersome　mechanism　of　the　Egyptian　and　Babylonian　writing　systems　was　rendered　obsolescent。　These　systems　did　not　yield　at　once；　to　be　sure；　all　human　experience　would　have　been　set　at　naught　had　they　done　so。　They　held　their　own；　and　much　more　than　held　their　own；　for　many　centuries。　After　the　Phoenicians　as　a　nation　had　ceased　to　have　importance；　after　their　original　script　had　been　endlessly　modified　by　many　alien　nations；　after　the　original　alphabet　had　made　the　conquest　of　all　civilized　Europe　and　of　far　outlying　portions　of　the　Orientthe　Egyptian　and　Babylonian　scribes　continued　to　indite　their　missives　in　the　same　old　pictographs　and　syllables。　The　inventive　thinker　must　have　been　struck　with　amazement　when；　after　making　the　fullest　analysis　of　speech…sounds　of　which　he　was　capable；　he　found　himself　supplied　with　only　a　score　or　so　of　symbols。　Yet　as　regards　the　consonantal　sounds　he　had　exhausted　the　resources　of　the　Semitic　tongue。　As　to　vowels；　he　scarcely　considered　them　at　all。　It　seemed　to　him　sufficient　to　use　one　symbol　for　each　consonantal　sound。　This　reduced　the　hitherto　complex　mechanism　of　writing　to　so　simple　a　system　that　the　inventor　must　have　regarded　it　with　sheer　delight。　On　the　other　hand；　the　conservative　scholar　doubtless　thought　it　distinctly　ambiguous。　In　truth；　it　must　be　admitted　that　the　system　was　imperfect。　It　was　a　vast　improvement　on　the　old　syllabary；　but　it　had　its　drawbacks。　Perhaps　it　had　been　made　a　bit　too　simple；　certainly　it　should　have　had　symbols　for　the　vowel　sounds　as　well　as　for　the　consonants。　Nevertheless；　the　vowel…lacking　alphabet　seems　to　have　taken　the　popular　fancy；　and　to　this　day　Semitic　people　have　never　supplied　its　deficiencies　save　with　certain　dots　and　points。　Peoples　using　the　Aryan　speech　soon　saw　the　defect；　and　the　Greeks　supplied　symbols　for　several　new　sounds　at　a　very　early　day。＇8＇　But　there　the　matter　rested；　and　the　alphabet　has　remained　imperfect。　For　the　purposes　of　the　English　language　there　should　certainly　have　been　added　a　dozen　or　more　new　characters。　It　is　clear；　for　example；　that；　in　the　interest　of　explicitness；　we　should　have　a　separate　symbol　for　the　vowel　sound　in　each　of　the　following　syllables：　bar；　bay；　bann；　ball；　to　cite　a　single　illustration。　There　is；　to　be　sure；　a　seemingly　valid　reason　for　not　extending　our　alphabet；　in　the　fact　that　in　multiplying　syllables　it　would　be　difficult　to　select　characters　at　once　easy　to　make　and　unambiguous。　Moreover；　the　conservatives　might　point　out；　with　telling　effect；　that　the　present　alphabet　has　proved　admirably　effective　for　about　three　thousand　years。　Yet　the　fact　that　our　dictionaries　supply　diacritical　marks　for　some　thirty　vowels　sounds　to　indicate　the　pronunciation　of　the　words　of　our　every…day　speech；　shows　how　we　let　memory　and　guessing　do　the　work　that　might　reasonably　be　demanded　of　a　really　complete　alphabet。　But；　whatever　its　defects；　the　existing　alphabet　is　a　marvellous　piece　of　mechanism；　the　result　of　thousands　of　years　of　intellectual　effort。　It　is；　perhaps　without　exception；　the　most　stupendous　invention　of　the　human　intellect　within　historical　timesan　achievement　taking　rank　with　such　great　prehistoric　discoveries　as　the　use　of　articulate　speech；　the　making　of　a　fire；　and　the　invention　of　stone　implements；　of　the　wheel　and　axle；　and　of　picture…writing。　It　made　possible　for　the　first　time　that　education　of　the　masses　upon　which　all　later　progress　of　civilization　was　so　largely　to　depend。

V。　THE　BEGINNINGS　OF　GREEK　SCIENCE　Herodotus；　the　Father　of　History；　tells　us　that　once　upon　a　timewhich　time；　as　the　modern　computator　shows　us；　was　about　the　year　590　B。C。　a　war　had　risen　between　the　Lydians　and　the　Medes　and　continued　five　years。　〃In　these　years　the　Medes　often　discomfited　the　Lydians　and　the　Lydians　often　discomfited　the　Medes　（and　among　other　things　they　fought　a　battle　by　night）；　and　yet　they　still　carried　on　the　war　with　equally　balanced　fortitude。　In　the　sixth　year　a　battle　took　place　in　which　it　happened；　when　the　fight　had　begun；　that　suddenly　the　day　became　night。　And　this　change　of　the　day　Thales；　the　Milesian；　had　foretold　to　the　Ionians；　laying　down　as　a　limit　this　very　year　in　which　the　change　took　place。　The　Lydians；　however；　and　the　Medes；　when　they　saw　that　it　had　become　night　instead　of　day；　ceased　from　their　fighting　and　were　much　more　eager；　both　of　them；　that　peace　should　be　made　between　them。〃　This　memorable　incident　occurred　while　Alyattus；　father　of　Croesus；　was　king　of　the　Lydians。　The　modern　astronomer；　reckoning　backward；　estimates　this　eclipse　as　occurring　probably　May　25th；　585　B。C。　The　date　is　important　as　fixing　a　mile…stone　in　the　chronology　of　ancient　history；　but　it　is　doubly　memorable　because　it　is　the　first　recorded　instance　of　a　predicted　eclipse。　Herodotus；　who　tells　the　story；　was　not　born　until　about　one　hundred　years　after　the　incident　occurred；　but　time　had　not　dimmed　the　fame　of　the　man　who　had　performed　the　necromantic　feat　of　prophecy。　Thales；　the　Milesian；　thanks　in　part　at　least　to　this　accomplishment；　had　been　known　in　life　as　first　on　the　list　of　the　Seven　Wise　Men　of　Greece；　and　had　passed　into　history　as　the　father　of　Greek　philosophy。　We　may　add　that　he　had　even　found　wider　popular　fame　through　being　named　by　Hippolytus；　and　then　by　Father　aesop；　as　the　philosopher　who；　intent　on　studying　the　heavens；　fell　into　a　well；　〃whereupon；〃　says　Hippolytus；　〃a　maid…servant　named　Thratta　laughed　at　him　and　said；　'In　his　search　for　things　in　the　sky　he　does　not　see　what　is　at　his　feet。'　〃　Such　citations　as　these　serve　to　bring　vividly　to　mind　the　fact　that　we　are　entering　a　new　epoch　of　thought。　Hitherto　our　studies　have　been　impersonal。　Among　Egyptians　and　Babylonians　alike　we　have　had　to　deal　with　classes　of　scientific　records；　but　we　have　scarcely　come　across　a　single　name。　Now；　however；　we　shall　begin　to　find　records　of　the　work　of　individual　investigators。　In　general；　from　now　on；　we　shall　be　able　to　trace　each　great　idea；　if　not　to　its　originator；　at　least　to　some　one　man　of　genius　who　was　prominent　in　bringing　it　before　the　world。　The　first　of　these　vitalizers　of　thought；　who　stands　out　at　the　beginnings　of　Greek　history；　is　this　same　Thales；　of　Miletus。　His　is　not　a　very　sharply　defined　personality　as　we　look　back　upon　it；　and　we　can　by　no　means　be　certain　that　all　the　discoveries　which　are　ascribed　to　him　are　specifically　his。　Of　his　individuality　as　a　man　we　know　very　little。　It　is　not　even　quite　certain　as　to　where　he　was　born；　Miletus　is　usually　accepted　as　his　birthplace；　but　one　tradition　makes　him　by　birth　a　Phenician。　It　is　not　at　all　in　question；　however；　that　by　blood　he　was　at　least　in　part　an　Ionian　Greek。　It　will　be　recalled　that　in　the　seventh　century　B。C。；　when　Thales　was　bornand　for　a　long　time　thereafterthe　eastern　shores　of　the　aegean　Sea　were　quite　as　prominently　the　centre　of　Greek　influence　as　was　the　peninsula　of　Greece　itself。　Not　merely　Thales；　but　his　followers　and　disciples；　Anaximander　and　Anaximenes；　were　born　there。　So　also　was　Herodotas；　the　Father　of　History；　not　to　extend　the　list。　There　is　nothing　anomalous；　then；　in　the　fact　that　Thales；　the　father　of　Greek　thought；　was　born　and　passed　his　life　on　soil　that　was　not　geographically　a　part　of　Greece；　but　the　fact　has　an　important　significance　of　another　kind。　Thanks　to　his　environment；　Thales　was　necessarily　brought　more　or　less　in　contact　with　Oriental　ideas。　There　was　close　commercial　contact　between　the　land　of　his　nativity　and　the　great　Babylonian　capital　off　to　the　east；　as　also　with　Egypt。　Doubtless　this　association　was　of　influence　in　shaping　the　development　of　Thales's　mind。　Indeed；　it　was　an　accepted　tradition　throughout　classical　times　that　the　Milesian　philosopher　had　travelled　in　Egypt；　and　had　there　gained　at　least　the　rudiments　of　his　knowledge　of　geometry。　In　the　fullest　sense；　then；　Thales　may　be　regarded　as　representing　a　link　in　the　chain　of　thought　connecting　the　learning　of　the　old　Orient　with　the　nascent　scholarship　of　the　new　Occident。　Occupying　this　position；　it　is　fitting　that　the　personality　of　Thales　should　partake　somewhat　of　mystery；　that　the　scene　may　not　be　shifted　too　suddenly　from　the　vague；　impersonal　East　to　the　individualism　of　Europe。　All　of　this；　however；　must　not　be　taken　as　casting　any　doubt　upon　the　existence　of　Thales　as　a　real　person。　Even　the　dates　of　his　life640　to　546　B。C。may　be　accepted　as　at　least　approximately　trustworthy；　and　the　specific　discoveries　a