a history of science-1-第37章

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ppers；　who　probably　had　entered　the　temple　through　doors　miraculously　opened；　and　who　now　witnessed　this　seemingly　intelligent　response　of　a　machine；　the　result　must　have　seemed　mystifying　enough；　and；　indeed；　for　us　also；　when　we　consider　how　relatively　crude　was　the　mechanical　knowledge　of　the　time；　this　must　seem　nothing　less　than　marvellous。　As　in　imagination　we　walk　up　to　the　sacred　tank；　drop　our　drachma　in　the　slot；　and　hold　our　hand　for　the　spurt　of　holy…water；　can　we　realize　that　this　is　the　land　of　the　Pharaohs；　not　England　or　America；　that　the　kingdom　of　the　Ptolemies　is　still　at　its　height；　that　the　republic　of　Rome　is　mistress　of　the　world；　that　all　Europe　north　of　the　Alps　is　inhabited　solely　by　barbarians；　that　Cleopatra　and　Julius　Caesar　are　yet　unborn；　that　the　Christian　era　has　not　yet　begun？　Truly；　it　seems　as　if　there　could　be　no　new　thing　under　the　sun。

X。　SCIENCE　OF　THE　ROMAN　PERIOD　We　have　seen　that　the　third　century　B。C。　was　a　time　when　Alexandrian　science　was　at　its　height；　but　that　the　second　century　produced　also　in　Hipparchus　at　least　one　investigator　of　the　very　first　rank；　though；　to　be　sure；　Hipparchus　can　be　called　an　Alexandrian　only　by　courtesy。　In　the　ensuing　generations　the　Greek　capital　at　the　mouth　of　the　Nile　continued　to　hold　its　place　as　the　centre　of　scientific　and　philosophical　thought。　The　kingdom　of　the　Ptolemies　still　flourished　with　at　least　the　outward　appearances　of　its　old…time　glory；　and　a　company　of　grammarians　and　commentators　of　no　small　merit　could　always　be　found　in　the　service　of　the　famous　museum　and　library；　but　the　whole　aspect　of　world…history　was　rapidly　changing。　Greece；　after　her　brief　day　of　political　supremacy；　was　sinking　rapidly　into　desuetude；　and　the　hard…headed　Roman　in　the　West　was　making　himself　master　everywhere。　While　Hipparchus　of　Rhodes　was　in　his　prime；　Corinth；　the　last　stronghold　of　the　main…land　of　Greece；　had　fallen　before　the　prowess　of　the　Roman；　and　the　kingdom　of　the　Ptolemies；　though　still　nominally　free；　had　begun　to　come　within　the　sphere　of　Roman　influence。　Just　what　share　these　political　changes　had　in　changing　the　aspect　of　Greek　thought　is　a　question　regarding　which　difference　of　opinion　might　easily　prevail；　but　there　can　be　no　question　that；　for　one　reason　or　another；　the　Alexandrian　school　as　a　creative　centre　went　into　a　rapid　decline　at　about　the　time　of　the　Roman　rise　to　world…power。　There　are　some　distinguished　names；　but；　as　a　general　rule；　the　spirit　of　the　times　is　reminiscent　rather　than　creative；　the　workers　tend　to　collate　the　researches　of　their　predecessors　rather　than　to　make　new　and　original　researches　for　themselves。　Eratosthenes；　the　inventive　world…measurer；　was　succeeded　by　Strabo；　the　industrious　collator　of　facts；　Aristarchus　and　Hipparchus；　the　originators　of　new　astronomical　methods；　were　succeeded　by　Ptolemy；　the　perfecter　of　their　methods　and　the　systematizer　of　their　knowledge。　Meanwhile；　in　the　West；　Rome　never　became　a　true　culture…centre。　The　great　genius　of　the　Roman　was　political；　the　Augustan　Age　produced　a　few　great　historians　and　poets；　but　not　a　single　great　philosopher　or　creative　devotee　of　science。　Cicero；　Lucian；　Seneca；　Marcus　Aurelius；　give　us　at　best　a　reflection　of　Greek　philosophy。　Pliny；　the　one　world…famous　name　in　the　scientific　annals　of　Rome；　can　lay　claim　to　no　higher　credit　than　that　of　a　marvellously　industrious　collector　of　factsthe　compiler　of　an　encyclopaedia　which　contains　not　one　creative　touch。　All　in　all；　then；　this　epoch　of　Roman　domination　is　one　that　need　detain　the　historian　of　science　but　a　brief　moment。　With　the　culmination　of　Greek　effort　in　the　so…called　Hellenistic　period　we　have　seen　ancient　science　at　its　climax。　The　Roman　period　is　but　a　time　of　transition；　marking；　as　it　were；　a　plateau　on　the　slope　between　those　earlier　heights　and　the　deep；　dark　valleys　of　the　Middle　Ages。　Yet　we　cannot　quite　disregard　the　efforts　of　such　workers　as　those　we　have　just　named。　Let　us　take　a　more　specific　glance　at　their　accomplishments。

STRABO　THE　GEOGRAPHER　The　earliest　of　these　workers　in　point　of　time　is　Strabo。　This　most　famous　of　ancient　geographers　was　born　in　Amasia；　Pontus；　about　63　B。C。；　and　lived　to　the　year　24　A。D。；　living；　therefore；　in　the　age　of　Caesar　and　Augustus；　during　which　the　final　transformation　in　the　political　position　of　the　kingdom　of　Egypt　was　effected。　The　name　of　Strabo　in　a　modified　form　has　become　popularized　through　a　curious　circumstance。　The　geographer；　it　appears；　was　afflicted　with　a　peculiar　squint　of　the　eyes；　hence　the　name　strabismus；　which　the　modern　oculist　applies　to　that　particular　infirmity。　Fortunately；　the　great　geographer　has　not　been　forced　to　depend　upon　hearsay　evidence　for　recognition。　His　comprehensive　work　on　geography　has　been　preserved　in　its　entirety；　being　one　of　the　few　expansive　classical　writings　of　which　this　is　true。　The　other　writings　of　Strabo；　however；　including　certain　histories　of　which　reports　have　come　down　to　us；　are　entirely　lost。　The　geography　is　in　many　ways　a　remarkable　book。　It　is　not；　however；　a　work　in　which　any　important　new　principles　are　involved。　Rather　is　it　typical　of　its　age　in　that　it　is　an　elaborate　compilation　and　a　critical　review　of　the　labors　of　Strabo's　predecessors。　Doubtless　it　contains　a　vast　deal　of　new　information　as　to　the　details　of　geographyprecise　areas　and　distance；　questions　of　geographical　locations　as　to　latitude　and　zones；　and　the　like。　But　however　important　these　details　may　have　been　from　a　contemporary　stand…point；　they；　of　course；　can　have　nothing　more　than　historical　interest　to　posterity。　The　value　of　the　work　from　our　present　stand…point　is　chiefly　due　to　the　criticisms　which　Strabo　passes　upon　his　forerunners；　and　to　the　incidental　historical　and　scientific　references　with　which　his　work　abounds。　Being　written　in　this　closing　period　of　ancient　progress；　and　summarizing；　as　it　does；　in　full　detail　the　geographical　knowledge　of　the　time；　it　serves　as　an　important　guide…mark　for　the　student　of　the　progress　of　scientific　thought。　We　cannot　do　better　than　briefly　to　follow　Strabo　in　his　estimates　and　criticisms　of　the　work　of　his　predecessors；　taking　note　thus　of　the　point　of　view　from　which　he　himself　looked　out　upon　the　world。　We　shall　thus　gain　a　clear　idea　as　to　the　state　of　scientific　geography　towards　the　close　of　the　classical　epoch。　〃If　the　scientific　investigation　of　any　subject　be　the　proper　avocation　of　the　philosopher；〃　says　Strabo；　〃geography；　the　science　of　which　we　propose　to　treat；　is　certainly　entitled　to　a　high　place；　and　this　is　evident　from　many　considerations。　They　who　first　undertook　to　handle　the　matter　were　distinguished　men。　Homer；　Anaximander　the　Milesian；　and　Hecaeus　（his　fellow…citizen　according　to　Eratosthenes）；　Democritus；　Eudoxus；　Dicaearchus；　and　Ephorus；　with　many　others；　and　after　these；　Eratosthenes；　Polybius；　and　Posidonius；　all　of　them　philosophers。　Nor　is　the　great　learning　through　which　alone　this　subject　can　be　approached　possessed　by　any　but　a　person　acquainted　with　both　human　and　divine　things；　and　these　attainments　constitute　what　is　called　philosophy。　In　addition　to　its　vast　importance　in　regard　to　social　life　and　the　art　of　government；　geography　unfolds　to　us　a　celestial　phenomena；　acquaints　us　with　the　occupants　of　the　land　and　ocean；　and　the　vegetation；　fruits；　and　peculiarities　of　the　various　quarters　of　the　earth；　a　knowledge　of　which　marks　him　who　cultivates　it　as　a　man　earnest　in　the　great　problem　of　life　and　happiness。〃　Strabo　goes　on　to　say　that　in　common　with　other　critics；　including　Hipparchus；　he　regards　Homer　as　the　first　great　geographer。　He　has　much　to　say　on　the　geographical　knowledge　of　the　bard；　but　this　need　not　detain　us。　We　are　chiefly　concerned　with　his　comment　upon　his　more　recent　predecessors；　beginning　with　Eratosthenes。　The　constant　reference　to　this　worker　shows　the　important　position　which　he　held。　Strabo　appears　neither　as　detractor　nor　as　partisan；　but　as　one　who　earnestly　desires　the　truth。　Sometimes　he　seems　captious　in　his　criticisms　regarding　some　detail；　nor　is　he　always　correct　in　his　emendations　of　the　labors　of　others；　but；　on　the　whole；　his　work　is　marked　by　an　evident　attempt　at　fairness。　In　reading　his　book；　however；　one　is　forced　to　the　conclusion　that　Strabo　is　an　investigator　of　details；　not　an　original　thinker。　He　seems　more　concerned　with　precise　measurements　than　with　questionings　as　to　the　open　problems　of　his　science。　Whatever　he　accepts；　then；　may　be　taken　as　virtually　the　stock　doctrine　of　the　period。　〃As　the　size　of　the　earth；〃　he　says；　〃has　been　demonstrated　by　other　writers；　we　shall　here　take　for　granted　and　receive　as　accurate　what　they　have　advanced。　We　shall　also　assume　that　the　earth　is　spheroidal；　that　its　surface　is　likewise　spheroidal　and；　above　all；　that　bodies　have　a　tendency　towards　its　centre；　which　latter　point　is　clear　to　the　perception　of　the　most　average　understanding。　However；　we　may　show　summarily　that　the　earth　is　spheroidal；　from　the　consideration　that　all　things；　however　distant；　tend　to　its　centre；　and　that　every　body　is　attracted　towards　its　centre　by　gravity。　This　is　more　distinctly　proved　from　observations　of　the　sea　and　sky；　for　here　the　evidence　of　the　senses　and　common　observation　is　alone　requisite。　The　convexity　of　the　sea　is　a　further　proof　of　this　to　those　who　have　sailed；　for　they　cannot　perceive　lights　at　a　distance　when　placed　at　the　same　level　as　their　eyes；　and　if　raised　on　high　they　at　once　become　perceptible　to　vision　though　at　the　same　time　farther　removed。　So　when　the　eye　is　raised　it　sees　what　before　was　utterly　imperceptible。　Homer　speaks　of　this　when　he　says：

〃　'Lifted　up　on　the　vast　wave　he　quickly　beheld　afar。'　Sailors　as　they　approach　their　destination　behold　the　shore　continually　raising　itself　to　their　view；　and　objects　which　had　at　first　seemed　low　begin　to　lift　themselves。　Our　gnomons；　also；　are；　among　other　things；　evidence　of　the　revolution　of　the　heavenly　bodies；　and　common…sense　at　once　shows　us　that　if　the　depth　of　the　earth　were　infinite　such　a　revolution　could　not　take　place。〃＇1＇　Elsewhere　Strabo　criticises　Eratosthenes　for　having　entered　into　a　long　discussion　as　to　the　form　of　the　earth。　This　matter；　Strabo　thinks；　〃should　have　been　disposed　of　in　the　compass　of　a　few　words。〃　Obviously　this　doctrine　of　the　globe's　sphericity　had；　in　the　course　of　600　years；　become　so　firmly　established　among　the　Greek　thinkers　as　to　seem　almost　axiomatic。　We　shall　see　later　on　how　the　Western　world　made　a　curious　recession　from　this　seemingly　secure　position　under　stimulus　of　an　Oriental　misconception。　As　to　the　size　of　the　globe；　Strabo　is　disposed　to　accept　without　particular　comment　the　measurements　of　Eratosthenes。　He　speaks；　however；　of　〃more　recent　measurements；〃　referring　in　particular　to　that　adopted　by　Posidonius；　according　to　which　the　circumference　is　only　about　one　hundred　and　eighty　thousand　stadia。　Posidonius；　we　may　note　in　passing；　was　a　contemporary　and　friend　of　Cicero；　and　hence　lived　shortly　before　the　time　of　Strabo。　His　measurement　of　the　earth　was　based　on　observations　of　a　star　which　barely　rose　above　the　southern　horizon　at　Rhodes　as　compared　with　the　height　of　the　same　star　when　observed　at　Alexandria。　This　measurement