a history of science-1-第43章

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ey　of　such　petty　superstitions　he　would　never　have　conquered　Asia。　We　know　how　he　compelled　the　oracle　at　Delphi　to　yield　to　his　wishes；　how　he　cut　the　Gordian　knot；　how　he　made　his　dominating　personality　felt　at　the　temple　of　Ammon　in　Egypt。　We　know；　in　a　word；　that　he　yielded　to　superstitions　only　in　so　far　as　they　served　his　purpose。　Left　to　his　own　devices；　he　would　not　have　consulted　an　oracle　at　the　banks　of　the　Hyphasis；　or；　consulting；　would　have　forced　from　the　oracle　a　favorable　answer。　But　his　subordinates　were　mutinous　and　he　had　no　choice。　Suffice　it　for　our　present　purpose　that　the　oracle　was　consulted；　and　that　its　answer　turned　the　conqueror　back。　One　or　two　instances　from　Roman　history　may　complete　the　picture。　Passing　over　all　those　mythical　narratives　which　virtually　constitute　the　early　history　of　Rome；　as　preserved　to　us　by　such　historians　as　Livy　and　Dionysius；　we　find　so　logical　an　historian　as　Tacitus　recording　a　miraculous　achievement　of　Vespasian　without　adverse　comment。　〃During　the　months　when　Vespasian　was　waiting　at　Alexandria　for　the　periodical　season　of　the　summer　winds；　and　a　safe　navigation；　many　miracles　occurred　by　which　the　favor　of　Heaven　and　a　sort　of　bias　in　the　powers　above　towards　Vespasian　were　manifested。〃　Tacitus　then　describes　in　detail　the　cure　of　various　maladies　by　the　emperor；　and　relates　that　the　emperor　on　visiting　a　temple　was　met　there；　in　the　spirit；　by　a　prominent　Egyptian　who　was　proved　to　be　at　the　same　time　some　eighty　miles　distant　from　Alexandria。　It　must　be　admitted　that　Tacitus；　in　relating　that　Vespasian　caused　the　blind　to　see　and　the　lame　to　walk；　qualifies　his　narrative　by　asserting　that　〃persons　who　are　present　attest　the　truth　of　the　transaction　when　there　is　nothing　to　be　gained　by　falsehood。〃　Nor　must　we　overlook　the　fact　that　a　similar　belief　in　the　power　of　royalty　has　persisted　almost　to　our　own　day。　But　no　such　savor　of　scepticism　attaches　to　a　narrative　which　Dion　Cassius　gives　us　of　an　incident　in　the　life　of　Marcus　Aureliusan　incident　that　has　become　famous　as　the　episode　of　The　Thundering　Legion。　Xiphilinus　has　preserved　the　account　of　Dion；　adding　certain　picturesque　interpretations　of　his　own。　The　original　narrative；　as　cited；　asserts　that　during　one　of　the　northern　campaigns　of　Marcus　Aurelius；　the　emperor　and　his　army　were　surrounded　by　the　hostile　Quadi；　who　had　every　advantage　of　position　and　who　presently　ceased　hostilities　in　the　hope　that　heat　and　thirst　would　deliver　their　adversaries　into　their　hands　without　the　trouble　of　further　fighting。　〃Now；〃　says　Dion；　〃while　the　Romans；　unable　either　to　combat　or　to　retreat；　and　reduced　to　the　last　extremity　by　wounds；　fatigue；　heat；　and　thirst；　were　standing　helplessly　at　their　posts；　clouds　suddenly　gathered　in　great　number　and　rain　descended　in　floodscertainly　not　without　divine　intervention；　since　the　Egyptian　Maege　Arnulphis；　who　was　with　Marcus　Antoninus；　is　said　to　have　invoked　several　genii　by　the　aerial　mercury　by　enchantment；　and　thus　through　them　had　brought　down　rain。〃　Here；　it　will　be　observed；　a　supernatural　explanation　is　given　of　a　natural　phenomenon。　But　the　narrator　does　not　stop　with　this。　If　we　are　to　accept　the　account　of　Xiphilinus；　Dion　brings　forward　some　striking　proofs　of　divine　interference。　Xiphilinus　gives　these　proofs　in　the　following　remarkable　paragraph：　〃Dion　adds　that　when　the　rain　began　to　fall　every　soldier　lifted　his　head　towards　heaven　to　receive　the　water　in　his　mouth；　but　afterwards　others　hold　out　their　shields　or　their　helmets　to　catch　the　water　for　themselves　and　for　their　horses。　Being　set　upon　by　the　barbarians　。　。　。　while　occupied　in　drinking；　they　would　have　been　seriously　incommoded　had　not　heavy　hail　and　numerous　thunderbolts　thrown　consternation　into　the　ranks　of　the　enemy。　Fire　and　water　were　seen　to　mingle　as　they　left　the　heavens。　The　fire；　however；　did　not　reach　the　Romans；　but　if　it　did　by　chance　touch　one　of　them　it　was　immediately　extinguished；　while　at　the　same　time　the　rain；　instead　of　comforting　the　barbarians；　seemed　merely　to　excite　like　oil　the　fire　with　which　they　were　being　consumed。　Some　barbarians　inflicted　wounds　upon　themselves　as　though　their　blood　had　power　to　extinguish　flames；　while　many　rushed　over　to　the　side　of　the　Romans；　hoping　that　there　water　might　save　them。〃　We　cannot　better　complete　these　illustrations　of　pagan　credulity　than　by　adding　the　comment　of　Xiphilinus　himself。　That　writer　was　a　Christian；　living　some　generations　later　than　Dion。　He　never　thought　of　questioning　the　facts；　but　he　felt　that　Dion's　interpretation　of　these　facts　must　not　go　unchallenged。　As　he　interprets　the　matter；　it　was　no　pagan　magician　that　wrought　the　miracle。　He　even　inclines　to　the　belief　that　Dion　himself　was　aware　that　Christian　interference；　and　not　that　of　an　Egyptian；　saved　the　day。　〃Dion　knew；〃　he　declares；　〃that　there　existed　a　legion　called　The　Thundering　Legion；　which　name　was　given　it　for　no　other　reason　than　for　what　came　to　pass　in　this　war；〃　and　that　this　legion　was　composed　of　soldiers　from　Militene　who　were　all　professed　Christians。　〃During　the　battle；〃　continues　Xiphilinus；　〃the　chief　of　the　Pretonians　；　had　set　at　Marcus　Antoninus；　who　was　in　great　perplexity　at　the　turn　events　were　taking；　representing　to　him　that　there　was　nothing　the　people　called　Christians　could　not　obtain　by　their　prayers；　and　that　among　his　forces　was　a　troop　composed　wholly　of　followers　of　that　religion。　Rejoiced　at　this　news；　Marcus　Antoninus　demanded　of　these　soldiers　that　they　should　pray　to　their　god；　who　granted　their　petition　on　the　instant；　sent　lightning　among　the　enemy　and　consoled　the　Romans　with　rain。　Struck　by　this　wonderful　success；　the　emperor　honored　the　Christians　in　an　edict　and　named　their　legion　The　Thundering。　It　is　even　asserted　that　a　letter　existed　by　Marcus　Antoninus　on　this　subject。　The　pagans　well　knew　that　the　company　was　called　The　Thunderers；　having　attested　the　fact　themselves；　but　they　revealed　nothing　of　the　occasion　on　which　the　leader　received　the　name。〃＇1＇　Peculiar　interest　attaches　to　this　narrative　as　illustrating　both　credulousness　as　to　matters　of　fact　and　pseudo…scientific　explanation　of　alleged　facts。　The　modern　interpreter　may　suppose　that　a　violent　thunderstorm　came　up　during　the　course　of　a　battle　between　the　Romans　and　the　so…called　barbarians；　and　that　owing　to　the　local　character　of　the　storm；　or　a　chance　discharge　of　lightning；　the　barbarians　suffered　more　than　their　opponents。　We　may　well　question　whether　the　philosophical　emperor　himself　put　any　other　interpretation　than　this　upon　the　incident。　But；　on　the　other　hand；　we　need　not　doubt　that　the　major　part　of　his　soldiers　would　very　readily　accept　such　an　explanation　as　that　given　by　Dion　Cassius；　just　as　most　readers　of　a　few　centuries　later　would　accept　the　explanation　of　Xiphilinus。　It　is　well　to　bear　this　thought　in　mind　in　considering　the　static　period　of　science　upon　which　we　are　entering。　We　shall　perhaps　best　understand　this　period；　and　its　seeming　retrogressions；　if　we　suppose　that　the　average　man　of　the　Middle　Ages　was　no　more　credulous；　no　more　superstitious；　than　the　average　Roman　of　an　earlier　period　or　than　the　average　Greek；　though　the　precise　complexion　of　his　credulity　had　changed　under　the　influence　of　Oriental　ideas；　as　we　have　just　seen　illustrated　by　the　narrative　of　Xiphilinus。

APPENDIX　REFERENCE　LIST；　NOTES；　AND　BIBLIOGRAPHIES

CHAPTER　I。　PREHISTORIC　SCIENCE　Length　of　the　Prehistoric　Period。It　is　of　course　quite　impossible　to　reduce　the　prehistoric　period　to　any　definite　number　of　years。　There　are；　however；　numerous　bits　of　evidence　that　enable　an　anthropologist　to　make　rough　estimates　as　to　the　relative　lengths　of　the　different　periods　into　which　prehistoric　time　is　divided。　Gabriel　de　Mortillet；　one　of　the　most　industrious　students　of　prehistoric　archaeology；　ventured　to　give　a　tentative　estimate　as　to　the　numbers　of　years　involved　in　each　period。　He　of　course　claimed　for　this　nothing　more　than　the　value　of　a　scientific　guess。　It　is；　however；　a　guess　based　on　a　very　careful　study　of　all　data　at　present　available。　Mortillet　divides　the　prehistoric　period；　as　a　whole；　into　four　epochs。　The　first　of　these　is　the　preglacial；　which　he　estimates　as　comprising　seventy…eight　thousand　years；　the　second　is　the　glacial；　covering　one　hundred　thousand　years；　then　follows　what　he　terms　the　Solutreen；　which　numbers　eleven　thousand　years；　and；　finally；　the　Magdalenien；　comprising　thirty…three　thousand　years。　This　gives；　for　the　prehistoric　period　proper；　a　term　of　about　two　hundred　and　twenty…two　thousand　years。　Add　to　this　perhaps　twelve　thousand　years　ushering　in　the　civilization　of　Egypt；　and　the　six　thousand　years　of　stable；　sure　chronology　of　the　historical　period；　and　we　have　something　like　two　hundred　and　thirty　thousand　or　two　hundred　and　forty　thousand　years　as　the　age　of　man。　〃These　figures；〃　says　Mortillet；　〃are　certainly　not　exaggerated。　It　is　even　probable　that　they　are　below　the　truth。　Constantly　new　discoveries　are　being　made　that　tend　to　remove　farther　back　the　date　of　man's　appearance。〃　We　see；　then；　according　to　this　estimate；　that　about　a　quarter　of　a　million　years　have　elapsed　since　man　evolved　to　a　state　that　could　properly　be　called　human。　This　guess　is　as　good　as　another；　and　it　may　advantageously　be　kept　in　mind；　as　it　will　enable　us　all　along　to　understand　better　than　we　might　otherwise　be　able　to　do　the　tremendous　force　of　certain　prejudices　and　preconceptions　which　recent　man　inherited　from　his　prehistoric　ancestor。　Ideas　which　had　passed　current　as　unquestioned　truths　for　one　hundred　thousand　years　or　so　are　not　easily　cast　aside。　In　going　back；　in　imagination；　to　the　beginning　of　the　prehistoric　period；　we　must　of　course　reflect；　in　accordance　with　modern　ideas　on　the　subject；　that　there　was　no　year；　no　millennium　even；　when　it　could　be　said　expressly：　〃This　being　was　hitherto　a　primate；　he　is　now　a　man。〃　The　transition　period　must　have　been　enormously　long；　and　the　changes　from　generation　to　generation；　even　from　century　to　century；　must　have　been　very　slight。　In　speaking　of　the　extent　of　the　age　of　man　this　must　be　borne　in　mind：　it　must　be　recalled　that；　even　if　the　period　were　not　vague　for　other　reasons；　the　vagueness　of　its　beginning　must　make　it　indeterminate。　Bibliographical　Notes。A　great　mass　of　literature　has　been　produced　in　recent　years　dealing　with　various　phases　of　the　history　of　prehistoric　man。　No　single　work　known　to　the　writer　deals　comprehensively　with　the　scientific　attainments　of　early　man；　indeed；　the　subject　is　usually　ignored；　except　where　practical　phases　of　the　mechanical　arts　are　in　question。　But　of　course　any　attempt　to　consider　the　condition　of　primitive　man　talies　into　account；　by　inference　at　least；　his　knowledge　and　attainments。　Therefore；　most　works　on　anthropology；　ethnology；　and　primitive　culture　may　be　expected　to　throw　some　light　on　our　present　subject。　Works　dealing　with　the　social　and　mental　conditions　of　existing　savages　are　also　of　importance；　since　it　is　now　an　accepted　belief　that　the　ancestors　of　civilized　races　evolved　along　similar　lines　and　passed　through　corresponding　stages　of　nascent　culture。　Herbert　Spencer's　Descriptive　Sociology　presents　an　unequalled　mass　of　facts　regarding