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h¡¡was¡¡to¡¡be¡¡remembered¡¡in¡¡after¡¡times¡¡as¡¡typically¡¡Egyptian¡£¡¡More¡¡important¡¡than¡¡all¡¡else£»¡¡our¡¡Egyptian¡¡of¡¡the¡¡earliest¡¡historical¡¡period¡¡was¡¡in¡¡possession¡¡of¡¡the¡¡art¡¡of¡¡writing¡£¡¡He¡¡had¡¡begun¡¡to¡¡make¡¡those¡¡specific¡¡records¡¡which¡¡were¡¡impossible¡¡to¡¡the¡¡man¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Stone¡¡Age£»¡¡and¡¡thus¡¡he¡¡had¡¡entered¡¡fully¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡way¡¡of¡¡historical¡¡progress¡¡which£»¡¡as¡¡already¡¡pointed¡¡out£»¡¡has¡¡its¡¡very¡¡foundation¡¡in¡¡written¡¡records¡£¡¡From¡¡now¡¡on¡¡the¡¡deeds¡¡of¡¡individual¡¡kings¡¡could¡¡find¡¡specific¡¡record¡£¡¡It¡¡began¡¡to¡¡be¡¡possible¡¡to¡¡fix¡¡the¡¡chronology¡¡of¡¡remote¡¡events¡¡with¡¡some¡¡accuracy£»¡¡and¡¡with¡¡this¡¡same¡¡fixing¡¡of¡¡chronologies¡¡came¡¡the¡¡advent¡¡of¡¡true¡¡history¡£¡¡The¡¡period¡¡which¡¡precedes¡¡what¡¡is¡¡usually¡¡spoken¡¡of¡¡as¡¡the¡¡first¡¡dynasty¡¡in¡¡Egypt¡¡is¡¡one¡¡into¡¡which¡¡the¡¡present¡­day¡¡searcher¡¡is¡¡still¡¡able¡¡to¡¡see¡¡but¡¡darkly¡£¡¡The¡¡evidence¡¡seems¡¡to¡¡suggest¡¡than¡¡an¡¡invasion¡¡of¡¡relatively¡¡cultured¡¡people¡¡from¡¡the¡¡East¡¡overthrew£»¡¡and¡¡in¡¡time¡¡supplanted£»¡¡the¡¡Neolithic¡¡civilization¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Nile¡¡Valley¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡impossible¡¡to¡¡date¡¡this¡¡invasion¡¡accurately£»¡¡but¡¡it¡¡cannot¡¡well¡¡have¡¡been¡¡later¡¡than¡¡the¡¡year¡¡5000¡¡B¡£C¡££»¡¡and¡¡it¡¡may¡¡have¡¡been¡¡a¡¡great¡¡many¡¡centuries¡¡earlier¡¡than¡¡this¡£¡¡Be¡¡the¡¡exact¡¡dates¡¡what¡¡they¡¡may£»¡¡we¡¡find¡¡the¡¡Egyptian¡¡of¡¡the¡¡fifth¡¡millennium¡¡B¡£C¡£¡¡in¡¡full¡¡possession¡¡of¡¡a¡¡highly¡¡organized¡¡civilization¡£¡¡All¡¡subsequent¡¡ages¡¡have¡¡marvelled¡¡at¡¡the¡¡pyramids£»¡¡some¡¡of¡¡which¡¡date¡¡from¡¡about¡¡the¡¡year¡¡4000¡¡B¡£C¡££»¡¡though¡¡we¡¡may¡¡note¡¡in¡¡passing¡¡that¡¡these¡¡dates¡¡must¡¡not¡¡be¡¡taken¡¡too¡¡literally¡£¡¡The¡¡chronology¡¡of¡¡ancient¡¡Egypt¡¡cannot¡¡as¡¡yet¡¡be¡¡fixed¡¡with¡¡exact¡¡accuracy£»¡¡but¡¡the¡¡disagreements¡¡between¡¡the¡¡various¡¡students¡¡of¡¡the¡¡subject¡¡need¡¡give¡¡us¡¡little¡¡concern¡£¡¡For¡¡our¡¡present¡¡purpose¡¡it¡¡does¡¡not¡¡in¡¡the¡¡least¡¡matter¡¡whether¡¡the¡¡pyramids¡¡were¡¡built¡¡three¡¡thousand¡¡or¡¡four¡¡thousand¡¡years¡¡before¡¡the¡¡beginning¡¡of¡¡our¡¡era¡£¡¡It¡¡suffices¡¡that¡¡they¡¡date¡¡back¡¡to¡¡a¡¡period¡¡long¡¡antecedent¡¡to¡¡the¡¡beginnings¡¡of¡¡civilization¡¡in¡¡Western¡¡Europe¡£¡¡They¡¡prove¡¡that¡¡the¡¡Egyptian¡¡of¡¡that¡¡early¡¡day¡¡had¡¡attained¡¡a¡¡knowledge¡¡of¡¡practical¡¡mechanics¡¡which£»¡¡even¡¡from¡¡the¡¡twentieth¡­century¡¡point¡¡of¡¡view£»¡¡is¡¡not¡¡to¡¡be¡¡spoken¡¡of¡¡lightly¡£¡¡It¡¡has¡¡sometimes¡¡been¡¡suggested¡¡that¡¡these¡¡mighty¡¡pyramids£»¡¡built¡¡as¡¡they¡¡are¡¡of¡¡great¡¡blocks¡¡of¡¡stone£»¡¡speak¡¡for¡¡an¡¡almost¡¡miraculous¡¡knowledge¡¡on¡¡the¡¡part¡¡of¡¡their¡¡builders£»¡¡but¡¡a¡¡saner¡¡view¡¡of¡¡the¡¡conditions¡¡gives¡¡no¡¡warrant¡¡for¡¡this¡¡thought¡£¡¡Diodoras£»¡¡the¡¡Sicilian£»¡¡in¡¡his¡¡famous¡¡World's¡¡History£»¡¡written¡¡about¡¡the¡¡beginning¡¡of¡¡our¡¡era£»¡¡explains¡¡the¡¡building¡¡of¡¡the¡¡pyramids¡¡by¡¡suggesting¡¡that¡¡great¡¡quantities¡¡of¡¡earth¡¡were¡¡piled¡¡against¡¡the¡¡side¡¡of¡¡the¡¡rising¡¡structure¡¡to¡¡form¡¡an¡¡inclined¡¡plane¡¡up¡¡which¡¡the¡¡blocks¡¡of¡¡stone¡¡were¡¡dragged¡£¡¡He¡¡gives¡¡us¡¡certain¡¡figures£»¡¡based£»¡¡doubtless£»¡¡on¡¡reports¡¡made¡¡to¡¡him¡¡by¡¡Egyptian¡¡priests£»¡¡who¡¡in¡¡turn¡¡drew¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡traditions¡¡of¡¡their¡¡country£»¡¡perhaps¡¡even¡¡upon¡¡written¡¡records¡¡no¡¡longer¡¡preserved¡£¡¡He¡¡says¡¡that¡¡one¡¡hundred¡¡and¡¡twenty¡¡thousand¡¡men¡¡were¡¡employed¡¡in¡¡the¡¡construction¡¡of¡¡the¡¡largest¡¡pyramid£»¡¡and¡¡that£»¡¡notwithstanding¡¡the¡¡size¡¡of¡¡this¡¡host¡¡of¡¡workers£»¡¡the¡¡task¡¡occupied¡¡twenty¡¡years¡£¡¡We¡¡must¡¡not¡¡place¡¡too¡¡much¡¡dependence¡¡upon¡¡such¡¡figures¡¡as¡¡these£»¡¡for¡¡the¡¡ancient¡¡historians¡¡are¡¡notoriously¡¡given¡¡to¡¡exaggeration¡¡in¡¡recording¡¡numbers£»¡¡yet¡¡we¡¡need¡¡not¡¡doubt¡¡that¡¡the¡¡report¡¡given¡¡by¡¡Diodorus¡¡is¡¡substantially¡¡accurate¡¡in¡¡its¡¡main¡¡outlines¡¡as¡¡to¡¡the¡¡method¡¡through¡¡which¡¡the¡¡pyramids¡¡were¡¡constructed¡£¡¡A¡¡host¡¡of¡¡men¡¡putting¡¡their¡¡added¡¡weight¡¡and¡¡strength¡¡to¡¡the¡¡task£»¡¡with¡¡the¡¡aid¡¡of¡¡ropes£»¡¡pulleys£»¡¡rollers£»¡¡and¡¡levers£»¡¡and¡¡utilizing¡¡the¡¡principle¡¡of¡¡the¡¡inclined¡¡plane£»¡¡could¡¡undoubtedly¡¡move¡¡and¡¡elevate¡¡and¡¡place¡¡in¡¡position¡¡the¡¡largest¡¡blocks¡¡that¡¡enter¡¡into¡¡the¡¡pyramids¡¡orwhat¡¡seems¡¡even¡¡more¡¡wonderfulthe¡¡most¡¡gigantic¡¡obelisks£»¡¡without¡¡the¡¡aid¡¡of¡¡any¡¡other¡¡kind¡¡of¡¡mechanism¡¡or¡¡of¡¡any¡¡more¡¡occult¡¡power¡£¡¡The¡¡same¡¡hands¡¡could£»¡¡as¡¡Diodorus¡¡suggests£»¡¡remove¡¡all¡¡trace¡¡of¡¡the¡¡debris¡¡of¡¡construction¡¡and¡¡leave¡¡the¡¡pyramids¡¡and¡¡obelisks¡¡standing¡¡in¡¡weird¡¡isolation£»¡¡as¡¡if¡¡sprung¡¡into¡¡being¡¡through¡¡a¡¡miracle¡£

ASTRONOMICAL¡¡SCIENCE¡¡It¡¡has¡¡been¡¡necessary¡¡to¡¡bear¡¡in¡¡mind¡¡these¡¡phases¡¡of¡¡practical¡¡civilization¡¡because¡¡much¡¡that¡¡we¡¡know¡¡of¡¡the¡¡purely¡¡scientific¡¡attainments¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Egyptians¡¡is¡¡based¡¡upon¡¡modern¡¡observation¡¡of¡¡their¡¡pyramids¡¡and¡¡temples¡£¡¡It¡¡was¡¡early¡¡observed£»¡¡for¡¡example£»¡¡that¡¡the¡¡pyramids¡¡are¡¡obviously¡¡oriented¡¡as¡¡regards¡¡the¡¡direction¡¡in¡¡which¡¡they¡¡face£»¡¡in¡¡strict¡¡accordance¡¡with¡¡some¡¡astronomical¡¡principle¡£¡¡Early¡¡in¡¡the¡¡nineteenth¡¡century¡¡the¡¡Frenchman¡¡Biot¡¡made¡¡interesting¡¡studies¡¡in¡¡regard¡¡to¡¡this¡¡subject£»¡¡and¡¡a¡¡hundred¡¡years¡¡later£»¡¡in¡¡our¡¡own¡¡time£»¡¡Sir¡¡Joseph¡¡Norman¡¡Lockyer£»¡¡following¡¡up¡¡the¡¡work¡¡of¡¡various¡¡intermediary¡¡observers£»¡¡has¡¡given¡¡the¡¡subject¡¡much¡¡attention£»¡¡making¡¡it¡¡the¡¡central¡¡theme¡¡of¡¡his¡¡work¡¡on¡¡The¡¡Dawn¡¡of¡¡Astronomy¡££§1£§¡¡Lockyer's¡¡researches¡¡make¡¡it¡¡clear¡¡that¡¡in¡¡the¡¡main¡¡the¡¡temples¡¡of¡¡Egypt¡¡were¡¡oriented¡¡with¡¡reference¡¡to¡¡the¡¡point¡¡at¡¡which¡¡the¡¡sun¡¡rises¡¡on¡¡the¡¡day¡¡of¡¡the¡¡summer¡¡solstice¡£¡¡The¡¡time¡¡of¡¡the¡¡solstice¡¡had¡¡peculiar¡¡interest¡¡for¡¡the¡¡Egyptians£»¡¡because¡¡it¡¡corresponded¡¡rather¡¡closely¡¡with¡¡the¡¡time¡¡of¡¡the¡¡rising¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Nile¡£¡¡The¡¡floods¡¡of¡¡that¡¡river¡¡appear¡¡with¡¡very¡¡great¡¡regularity£»¡¡the¡¡on¡­rushing¡¡tide¡¡reaches¡¡the¡¡region¡¡of¡¡Heliopolis¡¡and¡¡Memphis¡¡almost¡¡precisely¡¡on¡¡the¡¡day¡¡of¡¡the¡¡summer¡¡solstice¡£¡¡The¡¡time¡¡varies¡¡at¡¡different¡¡stages¡¡of¡¡the¡¡river's¡¡course£»¡¡but¡¡as¡¡the¡¡civilization¡¡of¡¡the¡¡early¡¡dynasties¡¡centred¡¡at¡¡Memphis£»¡¡observations¡¡made¡¡at¡¡this¡¡place¡¡had¡¡widest¡¡vogue¡£¡¡Considering¡¡the¡¡all¡­essential¡¡character¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Nile¡¡floods¡­without¡¡which¡¡civilization¡¡would¡¡be¡¡impossible¡¡in¡¡Egyptit¡¡is¡¡not¡¡strange¡¡that¡¡the¡¡time¡¡of¡¡their¡¡appearance¡¡should¡¡be¡¡taken¡¡as¡¡marking¡¡the¡¡beginning¡¡of¡¡a¡¡new¡¡year¡£¡¡The¡¡fact¡¡that¡¡their¡¡coming¡¡coincides¡¡with¡¡the¡¡solstice¡¡makes¡¡such¡¡a¡¡division¡¡of¡¡the¡¡calendar¡¡perfectly¡¡natural¡£¡¡In¡¡point¡¡of¡¡fact£»¡¡from¡¡the¡¡earliest¡¡periods¡¡of¡¡which¡¡records¡¡have¡¡come¡¡down¡¡to¡¡us£»¡¡the¡¡new¡¡year¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Egyptians¡¡dates¡¡from¡¡the¡¡summer¡¡solstice¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡certain¡¡that¡¡from¡¡the¡¡earliest¡¡historical¡¡periods¡¡the¡¡Egyptians¡¡were¡¡aware¡¡of¡¡the¡¡approximate¡¡length¡¡of¡¡the¡¡year¡£¡¡It¡¡would¡¡be¡¡strange¡¡were¡¡it¡¡otherwise£»¡¡considering¡¡the¡¡ease¡¡with¡¡which¡¡a¡¡record¡¡of¡¡days¡¡could¡¡be¡¡kept¡¡from¡¡Nile¡¡flood¡¡to¡¡Nile¡¡flood£»¡¡or¡¡from¡¡solstice¡¡to¡¡solstice¡£¡¡But¡¡this£»¡¡of¡¡course£»¡¡applies¡¡only¡¡to¡¡an¡¡approximate¡¡count¡£¡¡There¡¡is¡¡some¡¡reason¡¡to¡¡believe¡¡that¡¡in¡¡the¡¡earliest¡¡period¡¡the¡¡Egyptians¡¡made¡¡this¡¡count¡¡only¡¡360¡¡days¡£¡¡The¡¡fact¡¡that¡¡their¡¡year¡¡was¡¡divided¡¡into¡¡twelve¡¡months¡¡of¡¡thirty¡¡days¡¡each¡¡lends¡¡color¡¡to¡¡this¡¡belief£»¡¡but£»¡¡in¡¡any¡¡event£»¡¡the¡¡mistake¡¡was¡¡discovered¡¡in¡¡due¡¡time¡¡and¡¡a¡¡partial¡¡remedy¡¡was¡¡applied¡¡through¡¡the¡¡interpolation¡¡of¡¡a¡¡¡¨little¡¡month¡¨¡¡of¡¡five¡¡days¡¡between¡¡the¡¡end¡¡of¡¡the¡¡twelfth¡¡month¡¡and¡¡the¡¡new¡¡year¡£¡¡This¡¡nearly¡¡but¡¡not¡¡quite¡¡remedied¡¡the¡¡matter¡£¡¡What¡¡it¡¡obviously¡¡failed¡¡to¡¡do¡¡was¡¡to¡¡take¡¡account¡¡of¡¡that¡¡additional¡¡quarter¡¡of¡¡a¡¡day¡¡which¡¡really¡¡rounds¡¡out¡¡the¡¡actual¡¡year¡£¡¡It¡¡would¡¡have¡¡been¡¡a¡¡vastly¡¡convenient¡¡thing¡¡for¡¡humanity¡¡had¡¡it¡¡chanced¡¡that¡¡the¡¡earth¡¡had¡¡so¡¡accommodated¡¡its¡¡rotary¡¡motion¡¡with¡¡its¡¡speed¡¡of¡¡transit¡¡about¡¡the¡¡sun¡¡as¡¡to¡¡make¡¡its¡¡annual¡¡flight¡¡in¡¡precisely¡¡360¡¡days¡£¡¡Twelve¡¡lunar¡¡months¡¡of¡¡thirty¡¡days¡¡each¡¡would¡¡then¡¡have¡¡coincided¡¡exactly¡¡with¡¡the¡¡solar¡¡year£»¡¡and¡¡most¡¡of¡¡the¡¡complexities¡¡o

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