a history of science-1-第7章

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un…god　to　alter　his　course　from　time　to　time；　as　he　is　observed　to　do；　in　winter　directing　his　bark　towards　the　farther　bank　of　the　channel；　in　summer　gliding　close　to　the　nearer　bank。　As　to　the　stars；　they　were　similar　lights；　suspended　from　the　vault　of　the　heaven；　but　just　how　their　observed　motion　of　translation　across　the　heavens　was　explained　is　not　apparent。　It　is　more　than　probable　that　no　one　explanation　was；　universally　accepted。　In　explaining　the　origin　of　this　mechanism　of　the　heavens；　the　Egyptian　imagination　ran　riot。　Each　separate　part　of　Egypt　had　its　own　hierarchy　of　gods；　and　more　or　less　its　own　explanations　of　cosmogony。　There　does　not　appear　to　have　been　any　one　central　story　of　creation　that　found　universal　acceptance；　any　more　than　there　was　one　specific　deity　everywhere　recognized　as　supreme　among　the　gods。　Perhaps　the　most　interesting　of　the　cosmogonic　myths　was　that　which　conceived　that　Nuit；　the　goddess　of　night；　had　been　torn　from　the　arms　of　her　husband；　Sibu　the　earth…god；　and　elevated　to　the　sky　despite　her　protests　and　her　husband's　struggles；　there　to　remain　supported　by　her　four　limbs；　which　became　metamorphosed　into　the　pillars；　or　mountains；　already　mentioned。　The　forcible　elevation　of　Nuit　had　been　effected　on　the　day　of　creation　by　a　new　god；　Shu；　who　came　forth　from　the　primeval　waters。　A　painting　on　the　mummy　case　of　one　Betuhamon；　now　in　the　Turin　Museum；　illustrates；　in　the　graphic　manner　so　characteristic　of　the　Egyptians；　this　act　of　creation。　As　Maspero＇2＇　points　out；　the　struggle　of　Sibu　resulted　in　contorted　attitudes　to　which　the　irregularities　of　the　earth's　surface　are　to　be　ascribed。　In　contemplating　such　a　scheme　of　celestial　mechanics　as　that　just　outlined；　one　cannot　avoid　raising　the　question　as　to　just　the　degree　of　literalness　which　the　Egyptians　themselves　put　upon　it。　We　know　how　essentially　eye…minded　the　Egyptian　was；　to　use　a　modern　psychological　phrasethat　is　to　say；　how　essential　to　him　it　seemed　that　all　his　conceptions　should　be　visualized。　The　evidences　of　this　are　everywhere：　all　his　gods　were　made　tangible；　he　believed　in　the　immortality　of　the　soul；　yet　he　could　not　conceive　of　such　immortality　except　in　association　with　an　immortal　body；　he　must　mummify　the　body　of　the　dead；　else；　as　he　firmly　believed；　the　dissolution　of　the　spirit　would　take　place　along　with　the　dissolution　of　the　body　itself。　His　world　was　peopled　everywhere　with　spirits；　but　they　were　spirits　associated　always　with　corporeal　bodies；　his　gods　found　lodgment　in　sun　and　moon　and　stars；　in　earth　and　water；　in　the　bodies　of　reptiles　and　birds　and　mammals。　He　worshipped　all　of　these　things：　the　sun；　the　moon；　water；　earth；　the　spirit　of　the　Nile；　the　ibis；　the　cat；　the　ram；　and　apis　the　bull；　but；　so　far　as　we　can　judge；　his　imagination　did　not　reach　to　the　idea　of　an　absolutely　incorporeal　deity。　Similarly　his　conception　of　the　mechanism　of　the　heavens　must　be　a　tangibly　mechanical　one。　He　must　think　of　the　starry　firmament　as　a　substantial　entity　which　could　not　defy　the　law　of　gravitation；　and　which；　therefore；　must　have　the　same　manner　of　support　as　is　required　by　the　roof　of　a　house　or　temple。　We　know　that　this　idea　of　the　materiality　of　the　firmament　found　elaborate　expression　in　those　later　cosmological　guesses　which　were　to　dominate　the　thought　of　Europe　until　the　time　of　Newton。　We　need　not　doubt；　therefore；　that　for　the　Egyptian　this　solid　vault　of　the　heavens　had　a　very　real　existence。　If　now　and　then　some　dreamer　conceived　the　great　bodies　of　the　firmament　as　floating　in　a　less　material　plenumand　such　iconoclastic　dreamers　there　are　in　all　agesno　record　of　his　musings　has　come　down　to　us；　and　we　must　freely　admit　that　if　such　thoughts　existed　they　were　alien　to　the　character　of　the　Egyptian　mind　as　a　whole。　While　the　Egyptians　conceived　the　heavenly　bodies　as　the　abiding…place　of　various　of　their　deities；　it　does　not　appear　that　they　practised　astrology　in　the　later　acceptance　of　that　word。　This　is　the　more　remarkable　since　the　conception　of　lucky　and　unlucky　days　was　carried　by　the　Egyptians　to　the　extremes　of　absurdity。　〃One　day　was　lucky　or　unlucky；〃　says　Erman；＇3＇　〃according　as　a　good　or　bad　mythological　incident　took　place　on　that　day。　For　instance；　the　1st　of　Mechir；　on　which　day　the　sky　was　raised；　and　the　27th　of　Athyr；　when　Horus　and；　Set　concluded　peace　together　and　divided　the　world　between　them；　were　lucky　days；　on　the　other　hand；　the　14th　of　Tybi；　on　which　Isis　and　Nephthys　mourned　for　Osiris；　was　an　unlucky　day。　With　the　unlucky　days；　which；　fortunately；　were　less　in　number　than　the　lucky　days；　they　distinguished　different　degrees　of　ill…luck。　Some　were　very　unlucky；　others　only　threatened　ill…luck；　and　many；　like　the　17th　and　the　27th　Choiakh；　were　partly　good　and　partly　bad　according　to　the　time　of　day。　Lucky　days　might；　as　a　rule；　be　disregarded。　At　most　it　might　be　as　well　to　visit　some　specially　renowned　temple；　or　to　'celebrate　a　joyful　day　at　home；'　but　no　particular　precautions　were　really　necessary；　and；　above　all；　it　was　said；　'what　thou　also　seest　on　the　day　is　lucky。'　It　was　quite　otherwise　with　the　unlucky　and　dangerous　days；　which　imposed　so　many　and　such　great　limitations　on　people　that　those　who　wished　to　be　prudent　were　always　obliged　to　bear　them　in　mind　when　determining　on　any　course　of　action。　Certain　conditions　were　easy　to　carry　out。　Music　and　singing　were　to　be　avoided　on　the　14th　Tybi；　the　day　of　the　mourning　of　Osiris；　and　no　one　was　allowed　to　wash　on　the　16th　Tybi；　whilst　the　name　of　Set　might　not　be　pronounced　on　the　24th　of　Pharmuthi。　Fish　was　forbidden　on　certain　days；　and　what　was　still　more　difficult　in　a　country　so　rich　in　mice；　on　the　12th　of　Tybi　no　mouse　might　be　seen。　The　most　tiresome　prohibitions；　however；　were　those　which　occurred　not　infrequently；　namely；　those　concerning　work　and　going　out：　for　instance；　four　times　in　Paophi　the　people　had　to　'do　nothing　at　all；'　and　five　times　to　sit　the　whole　day　or　half　the　day　in　the　house；　and　the　same　rule　had　to　be　observed　each　month。　It　was　impossible　to　rejoice　if　a　child　was　born　on　the　23d　of　Thoth；　the　parents　knew　it　could　not　live。　Those　born　on　the　20th　of　Choiakh　would　become　blind；　and　those　born　on　the　3d　of　Choiakh；　deaf。〃

CHARMS　AND　INCANTATIONS　Where　such　conceptions　as　these　pertained；　it　goes　without　saying　that　charms　and　incantations　intended　to　break　the　spell　of　the　unlucky　omens　were　equally　prevalent。　Such　incantations　consisted　usually　of　the　recitation　of　certain　phrases　based　originally；　it　would　appear；　upon　incidents　in　the　history　of　the　gods。　The　words　which　the　god　had　spoken　in　connection　with　some　lucky　incident　would；　it　was　thought；　prove　effective　now　in　bringing　good　luck　to　the　human　supplicantthat　is　to　say；　the　magician　hoped　through　repeating　the　words　of　the　god　to　exercise　the　magic　power　of　the　god。　It　was　even　possible；　with　the　aid　of　the　magical　observances；　partly　to　balk　fate　itself。　Thus　the　person　predestined　through　birth　on　an　unlucky　day　to　die　of　a　serpent　bite　might　postpone　the　time　of　this　fateful　visitation　to　extreme　old　age。　The　like　uncertainty　attached　to　those　spells　which　one　person　was　supposed　to　be　able　to　exercise　over　another。　It　was　held；　for　example；　that　if　something　belonging　to　an　individual；　such　as　a　lock　of　hair　or　a　paring　of　the　nails；　could　be　secured　and　incorporated　in　a　waxen　figure；　this　figure　would　be　intimately　associated　with　the　personality　of　that　individual。　An　enemy　might　thus　secure　occult　power　over　one；　any　indignity　practised　upon　the　waxen　figure　would　result　in　like　injury　to　its　human　prototype。　If　the　figure　were　bruised　or　beaten；　some　accident　would　overtake　its　double；　if　the　image　were　placed　over　a　fire；　the　human　being　would　fall　into　a　fever；　and　so　on。　But；　of　course；　such　mysterious　evils　as　these　would　be　met　and　combated　by　equally　mysterious　processes；　and　so　it　was　that　the　entire　art　of　medicine　was　closely　linked　with　magical　practices。　It　was　not；　indeed；　held；　according　to　Maspero；　that　the　magical　spells　of　enemies　were　the　sole　sources　of　human　ailments；　but　one　could　never　be　sure　to　what　extent　such　spells　entered　into　the　affliction；　and　so　closely　were　the　human　activities　associated　in　the　mind　of　the　Egyptian　with　one　form　or　another　of　occult　influences　that　purely　physical　conditions　were　at　a　discount。　In　the　later　times；　at　any　rate；　the　physician　was　usually　a　priest；　and　there　was　a　close　association　between　the　material　and　spiritual　phases　of　therapeutics。　Erman＇4＇　tells　us　that　the　following　formula　had　to　be　recited　at　the　preparation　of　all　medicaments：　〃That　Isis　might　make　free；　make　free。　That　Isis　might　make　Horus　free　from　all　evil　that　his　brother　Set　had　done　to　him　when　he　slew　his　father；　Osiris。　O　Isis；　great　enchantress；　free　me；　release　me　from　all　evil　red　things；　from　the　fever　of　the　god；　and　the　fever　of　the　goddess；　from　death　and　death　from　pain；　and　the　pain　which　comes　over　me；　as　thou　hast　freed；　as　thou　hast　released　thy　son　Horus；　whilst　I　enter　into　the　fire　and　come　forth　from　the　water；〃　etc。　Again；　when　the　invalid　took　the　medicine；　an　incantation　had　to　be　said　which　began　thus：　〃Come　remedy；　come　drive　it　out　of　my　heart；　out　of　these　limbs　strong　in　magic　power　with　the　remedy。〃　He　adds：　〃There　may　have　been　a　few　rationalists　amongst　the　Egyptian　doctors；　for　the　number　of　magic　formulae　varies　much　in　the　different　books。　The　book　that　we　have　specially　taken　for　a　foundation　for　this　account　of　Egyptian　medicine　the　great　papyrus　of　the　eighteenth　dynasty　edited　by　Ebers＇5＇contains；　for　instance；　far　fewer　exorcisms　than　some　later　writings　with　similar　contents；　probably　because　the　doctor　who　compiled　this　book　of　recipes　from　older　sources　had　very　little　liking　for　magic。〃　It　must　be　understood；　howeverindeed；　what　has　just　been　said　implies　as　muchthat　the　physician　by　no　means　relied　upon　incantations　alone；　on　the　contrary；　he　equipped　himself　with　an　astonishing　variety　of　medicaments。　He　had　a　particular　fondness　for　what　the　modern　physician　speaks　of　as　a　〃shot…gun〃　prescriptionone　containing　a　great　variety　of　ingredients。　Not　only　did　herbs　of　many　kinds　enter　into　this；　but　such　substances　as　lizard's　blood；　the　teeth　of　swine；　putrid　meat；　the　moisture　from　pigs'　ears；　boiled　horn；　and　numerous　other　even　more　repellent　ingredients。　Whoever　is　familiar　with　the　formulae　employed　by　European　physicians　even　so　recently　as　the　eighteenth　century　will　note　a　striking　similarity　here。　Erman　points　out　that　the　modern　Egyptian　even　of　this　day　holds　closely　to　many　of　the　practices　of　his　remote　ancestor。　In　particular；　the　efficacy　of　the　beetle　as　a　medicinal　agent　has　stood　the　test　of　ages　of　practice。　〃Against　all　kinds　of　witchcraft；〃　says　an　ancient　formula；　〃a　great　scarabaeus　beetle；　cut　off　his　head　and　wings；　boil　him；　put　him　in　oil　and　lay　him　out；　then　cook　his　head　and　wings；　put　them　in　snake　fat；　boil；　and　let　the　patient　drink　the　mixture。〃　The　modern　Egyptian；　says　Erman；　uses　almost　precisely　the　same　recipe；　except　that　the　snake　fat　is　replaced　by　modern　oil。　In　evidence　of　the　importance　which　was　attached　to　practical　medicine　in　the　Egypt　of　an　early　day；　the　names　of　several　physicians　have　come　dow