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Aeroplanes



by　J。　S。　Zerbe






This　work　is　not　intended　to　set　forth　the　exploits　of　aviators

nor　to　give　a　history　of　the　Art。　It　is　a　book　of　instructions

intended　to　point　out　the　theories　of　flying；　as　given　by　the

pioneers；　the　practical　application　of　power　to　the　various

flying　structures；　how　they　are　built；　the　different　methods　of

controlling　them；　the　advantages　and　disadvantages　of　the　types

now　in　use；　and　suggestions　as　to　the　directions　in　which

improvements　are　required。



It　distinctly　points　out　wherein　mechanical　flight　differs

from　bird　flight；　and　what　are　the　relations　of　shape；　form；　size

and　weight。　It　treats　of　kites；　gliders　and　model　aeroplanes；

and　has　an　Interesting　chapter　on　the　aeroplane　and　its　uses　In

the　great　war。　All　the　illustrations　have　been　specially　prepared

for　the　work。





Every　Boy's　Mechanical　Library



AEROPLANES



BY

J。　S。　ZERBE；　M。　E。

Author　of　AutomobilesMotors





COPYRIGHT；　1915；　BY

CUPPLES　&　LEON　COMPANY

NY





CONTENTS

　

INTRODUCTORY　



CHAPTER　I。　THEORIES　AND　FACTS　ABOUT　FLYING



The　〃Science〃　of　Aviation。　Machine　Types。　Shape

or　Form　not　Essential。　A　Stone　as　a　Flying　Machine。

Power　the　Great　Element。　Gravity　as　Power。　Mass

and　Element　in　Flying。　Momentum　a　Factor。　Resistance。

How　Resistance　Affects　Shape。　Mass　and　Resistance。

The　Early　Tendency　to　Eliminate　Momentum。

Light　Machines　Unstable。　The　Application　of

Power。　The　Supporting　Surfaces。　Area　not　the　Essential

Thing。　The　Law　of　Gravity。　Gravity。　Indestructibility

of　Gravitation。　Distance　Reduces　Gravitational

Pull。　How　Motion　Antagonizes　Gravity。　A

Tangent。　Tangential　Motion　Represents　Centrifugal

Pull。　Equalizing　the　Two　Motions。　Lift　and　Drift。

Normal　Pressure。　Head　Resistance。　Measuring　Lift

and　Drift。　Pressure　at　Different　Angles。　Difference

Between　Lift　and　Drift　in　Motion。　Tables　of　Lift　and

Drift。　Why　Tables　of　Lift　and　Drift　are　Wrong。

Langley's　Law。　Moving　Planes　vs。　Winds。　Momentum

not　Considered。　The　Flight　of　Birds。　The

Downward　Beat。　The　Concaved　Wing。　Feather　Structure

Considered。　Webbed　Wings。　The　Angle　of　Movement。

An　Initial　Movement　or　Impulse　Necessary。　A

Wedging　Motion。　No　Mystery　in　the　Wave　Motion。

How　Birds　Poise　with　Flapping　Wings。　Narrow…

winged　Birds。　Initial　Movement　of　Soaring　Birds。

Soaring　Birds　Move　Swiftly。　Muscular　Energy

Exerted　by　Soaring　Birds。　Wings　not　Motionless。



CHAPTER　II。　PRINCIPLES　OF　AEROPLANE　FLIGHT

Speed　as　one　of　the　Elements。　Shape　and　Speed。

What　〃Square　of　the　Speed〃　Means。　Action　of　a

〃Skipper。〃　Angle　of　Incidence。　Speed　and　Surface。

Control　of　the　Direction　of　Flight。　Vertical　Planes。



CHAPTER　III。　THE　FORM　OR　SHAPE　OF　FLYING　MACHINES

The　Theory　of　Copying　Nature。　Hulls　of　Vessels。

Man　Does　not　Copy　Nature。　Principles　Essential；　not

Forms。　Nature　not　the　Guide　as　to　Forms。　The　Propeller

Type。　Why　Specially…designed　Forms　Improve

Natural　Structures。　Mechanism　Devoid　of　Intelligence。

A　Machine　Must　Have　a　Substitute　for　Intelligence。

Study　of　Bird　Flight　Useless。　Shape　of

Supporting　Surface。　The　Trouble　Arising　From　Outstretched

Wings。　Density　of　the　Atmosphere。　Elasticity

of　the　Air。　〃Air　Holes。〃　Responsibility　for

Accidents。　The　Turning　Movement。　Centrifugal　Action：

The　Warping　Planes。



CHAPTER　IV。　FORE　AND　AFT　CONTROL

The　Bird　Type　of　Fore　and　Aft　Control。　Angle　and

Direction　of　Flight。　Why　Should　the　Angle　of　the

Body　Change。　Changing　Angle　of　Body　not　Safe。　A

Non…changing　Body。　Descending　Positions　by　Power

Control。　Cutting　off　the　Power。　The　Starting　Movement。

The　Suggested　Type。　The　Low　Center　of　Gravity。

Fore　and　Aft　Oscillations。　Application　of　the

New　Principle。　Low　Weight　not　Necessary　with　Synchronously…

moving　wings。



CHAPTEB　V。　DIFFERENT　MACHINE　TYPES　AND　THEIR　CHARACTERISTICS

The　Helicopter。　Aeroplanes。　The　Monoplane。　Its

Advantages。　Its　Disadvantages。　The　Bi…plane。　Stability

in　Bi…planes。　The　Orthopter。　Nature's　Type

not　Uniform。　Theories　About　Flight　of　Birds。　Instinct。

The　Mode　of　Motion。　The　Wing　Structure。

The　Wing　Movement。　The　Helicopter　Motion。



CHAPTER　VI。　THE　LIFTING　SURFACES　OF　AEROPLANES

Relative　Speed　and　Angle。　Narrow　Planes　Most　Effective。

Stream　Lines　Along　a　Plane。　The　Center　of

Pressure。　Air　Lines　on　the　Upper　Side　of　a　Plane。

Rarefied　Area。　Rarefaction　Produced　by　Motion。　The

Concaved　Plane。　The　Center　of　Pressure。　Utilizing

the　Rarefied　Area。　Changing　Center　of　Pressure。

Plane　Monstrosities。　The　Bird　Wing　Structure。

Torsion。　The　Bat's　Wing。　An　Abnormal　Shape。　The

Tail　as　a　Monitor。



CHAPTER　VII。　ABNORMAL　FLYING　STUNTS　AND　SPEEDS

Lack　of　Improvements　in　Machines。　Men　Exploited

and　not　Machines。　Abnormal　Flying　of　no　Value。

The　Art　of　Juggling。　Practical　Uses　the　Best　Test。

Concaved　and　Convex　Planes。　How　Momentum　is　a

Factor　in　Inverted　Flying。　The　Turning　Movement。

When　Concaved　Planes　are　Desirable。　The　Speed

Mania。　Uses　of　Flying　Machines。　Perfection　in　Machines

Must　Come　Before　Speed。　The　Range　of　its

Uses。　Commercial　Utility。



CHAPTER　VIII。　KITES　AND　GLIDERS

The　Dragon　Kite。　Its　Construction。　The　Malay

Kite。　Dihedral　Angle。　The　Common　Kite。　The　Bow

Kite。　The　Box　Kite。　The　Voison　Bi…plane。　Lateral

Stability　in　Kites；　not　Conclusive　as　to　Planes。　The

Spear　Kite。　The　Cellular　Kite。　Tetrahedral　Kite。

The　Deltoid。　The　Dunne　Flying　Machine。　Rotating

Kite。　Kite　Principles。　Lateral　Stability　in　Kites。

Similarity　of　Fore　and　Aft　Control。　Gliding　Flight

One　of　the　Uses　of　Glider　Experiments。　Hints　in

Gliding。



CHAPTER　IX。　AEROPLANE　CONSTRUCTION

Lateral　and　Fore　and　Aft。　Transverse。　Stability

and　Stabilization。　The　Wright　System。　Controlling

the　Warping　Ends。　The　Curtiss　Wings。　The　Farman

Ailerons。　Features　Well　Developed。　Depressing　the

Rear　End。　Determining　the　Size。　Rule　for　Placing

the　Planes。　Elevating　Plane。　Action　in　Alighting。

The　Monoplane。　The　Common　Fly。　Stream　Lines。

The　Monoplane　Form。



CHAPTER　X。　POWER　AND　ITS　APPLICATION

Features　in　Power　Application。　Amount　of　Power

Necessary。　The　Pull　of　the　Propeller。　Foot　Pounds

Small　Amount　of　Power　Available。　High　Propeller

Speed　Important。　Width　and　Pitch　of　Blades。　Effect

of　Increasing　Propeller　Pull。　Disposition　of　the

Planes。　Different　Speeds　with　Same　Power。　Increase

of　Speed　Adds　to　Resistance。　How　Power　Decreases

with　Speed。　How　to　Calculate　the　Power　Applied。

Pulling　Against　an　Angle。　The　Horizontal　and　the

Vertical　Pull。　The　Power　Mounting。　Securing　the

Propeller　to　the　Shaft。　Vibrations。　Weaknesses　in

Mounting。　The　Gasoline　Tank。　Where　to　Locate　the

Tank。　The　Danger　to　the　Pilot。　The　Closed…in　Body。

Starting　the　Machine。　Propellers　with　Varying　Pitch。



CHAPTER　XI。　FLYING　MACHINE　ACCESSORIES

The　Anemometer。　The　Anemograph。　The　Anemometrograph。

The　Speed　Indicator。　Air　Pressure　Indicator。

Determining　the　Pressure　From　the　Speed。

Calculating　Pressure　From　Speed。　How　the　Figures

are　Determined。　Converting　Hours　Into　Minutes。

Changing　Speed　Hours　to　Seconds。　Pressure　as　the

Square　of　the　Speed。　Gyroscopic：Balance。　The　Principles

Involved。　The　Application　of　the　Gyroscope。

Fore　and　Aft　Gyroscopic　Control。　Angle　Indicator。

Pendulum　Stabilizer。　Steering　and　Controlling

Wheel。　Automatic　Stabilizing　Wings。　Barometers。

Aneroid　Barometer。　Hydroplanes。　Sustaining　Weight

of　Pontoons。　Shape　of　the　Pontoon。



CHAPTER　XII。　EXPERIMENTAL　WORK　IN　FLYING

Certain　Conditions　in　Flying。　Heat　in　Air。　Motion

When　in　Flight。　Changing　Atmosphere。　〃Ascending

Currents。〃　〃Aspirate　Currents。〃　Outstretched　Wings。

The　Starting　Point。　The　Vital　Part　of　the　Machine。

Studying　the　Action　of　the　Machine。　Elevating　the

Machine。　How　to　Practice。　The　First　Stage。　Patience

the　Most　Difficult　Thing。　The　Second　Stage。

The　Third　Stage。　Observations　While　in　Flight。　Flying

in　a　Wind。　First　Trials　in　a　Quiet　Atmosphere。

Making　Turns。　The　Fourth　Stage。　The　Figure　8。

The　Vol　Plane。　The　Landing。　Flying　Altitudes。



CHAPTER　XIII。　THE　PROPELLER

Propeller　Changes。　Propeller　Shape。　The　Diameter。

Pitch。　Laying　Out　the　Pitch。　Pitch　Rule。　Laminated

Construction。　Laying　up　a　Propeller　Form。

Making　Wide　Blades。　Propeller　Outline。　For　High

Speeds。　Increasing　Propeller　Efficiency。



CHAPTER　XIV。　EXPERIMENTAL　GLIDERS　AND　MODEL　AEROPLANES

The　Relation　of　Models　to　Flying　Machines。　Lessons

From　Models。　Flying　Model　Aeroplanes。　An

Efficient　Glider。　The　Deltoid　Formation。　Racing

Models。　The　Power　for　Model　Aeroplanes。　Making

the　Propeller。　Material　for　the　Propeller。　Rubber。

Propeller　Shape　and　Size。　Supporting　Surfaces。



CHAPTER　XV。　THE　AEROPLANE　IN　THE　GREAT　WAR

Balloon　Observations。　Changed　Conditions　in　Warfare。

The　Effort　to　Conceal　Combatants。　Smokeless

Powder。　Inventions　to　Attack　Aerial　Craft。　Functions

of　the　Aeroplane　in　War。　Bomb…throwing　Tests。

Method　for　Determining　the　Movement　of　a　Bomb。

The　Great　Extent　of　Modern　Battle　Lines。　The　Aeroplane

Detecting　the　Movements　of　Armies。　The　Effective

Height　for　Scouting。　Sizes　of　Objects　at　Great

Distances。　Some　Daring　Feats　in　War。　The　German

Taube。　How　Aeroplanes　Report　Observations。　Signal

Flags。　How　Used。　Casualties　Due　to　Bombs

From　Aeroplanes。



GLOSSARY







INTRODUCTORY



In　preparing　this　volume　on　Flying　Machines

the　aim　has　been　to　present　the　subject　in　such　a

manner　as　will　appeal　to　boys；　or　beginners；　in

this　field　of　human　activity。



The　art　of　aviation　is　in　a　most　primitive　state。

So　many　curious　theories　have　been　brought　out

that；　while　they　furnish　food　for　thought；　do　not；

in　any　way；　advance　or　improve　the　structure　of

the　machine　itself；　nor　are　they　of　any　service

in　teaching　the　novice　how　to　fly。



The　author　considers　it　of　far　more　importance

to　teach　right　principles；　and　correct　reasoning

than　to　furnish　complete　diagrams　of　the　details

of　a　machine。　The　former　teach　the　art；　whereas

the　latter　merely　point　out　the　mechanical

arrangements；　independently　of　the　reasons　for

making　the　structures　in　that　particular　way。



Relating　the　history　of　an　art；　while　it　may　be

interesting　reading；　does　not　even　lay　the　foundations

of　a　knowledge　of　the　subject；　hence　that

field　has　been　left　to　others。



The　boy　is　naturally　inquisitive；　and　he　is　interested

in　knowing　WHY　certain　things　are

necessary；　and　the　reasons　for　making　structures　in

particular　ways。　That　is　the　void　into　which

these　pages　are　placed。



The　author　knows　from　practical　experience；

while　experimenting　with　and　building　aeroplanes；

how　eagerly　every　boy　inquires　into　details。

They　want　the　reasons　for　things。



One　such　instance　is　related　to　evidence　this

spirit　of　inquiry。　Some　boys　were　discussing　the

curved　plane　structure。　One　of　them　ventured

the　opinion　that　birds'　wings　were　concaved　on　the

lower　side。　〃But；〃　retorted　anot