the origins of contemporary france-1-第44章

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equator；＇3＇　the　cause　and　the　law　of　the　tides；　the　primitive　fluidity

of　the　planet；　the　constancy　of　its　internal　heat；　and　then；　with

Buffon；　Desmarets；　Hutton　and　Werner；　the　aqueous　or　igneous　origin　of

rocks；　the　stratifications　of　the　earth；　the　structure　of　beds　of

fossils；　the　prolonged　and　repeated　submersion　of　continents；　the　slow

growth　of　animal　and　vegetable　deposits；　the　vast　antiquity　of　life；

the　stripping；　fracturing　and　gradual　transformation　of　the

terrestrial　surface；＇4＇　and；　finally　the　grand　picture　in　which　Buffon

describes　in　approximate　manner　the　entire　history　of　our　globe；　from

the　moment　it　formed　a　mass　of　glowing　lava　down　to　the　time　when　our

species；　after　so　many　lost　or　surviving　species；　was　able　to　inhabit

it。　　…　　Upon　this　science　of　inorganic　matter　we　see　arising　at　the

same　time　the　science　of　organic　matter。　　Grew；　and　then　Vaillant　had

just　demonstrated　the　sexual　system　and　described　the　fecundating　of

plants；　Linnaeus　invents　botanical　nomenclature　and　the　first　complete

classifications；　the　Jussieus　discover　the　subordination　of

characteristics　and　natural　classification。　　Digestion　is　explained　by

Réaumur　and　Spallanzani；　respiration　by　Lavoisier　；　Prochaska　verifies

the　mechanism　of　reflex　actions　；　Haller　and　Spallanzani　experiment　on

and　describe　the　conditions　and　phases　of　generation。　　Scientists

penetrate　to　the　lowest　stages　of　animal　life。　　Réaumur　publishes　his

admirable　observations　on　insects　and　Lyonnet　devotes　twenty　years　to

portraying　the　willow…caterpillar；　Spallanzani　resuscitates　his

rotifers；　Tremblay　dissects　his　fresh…water　polyps；　and　Needham

reveals　his　infusoria。　　The　experimental　conception　of　life　is　deduced

from　these　various　researches。　　Buffon　already；　and　especially　Lamarck；

in　their　great　and　incomplete　sketches；　outline　with　penetrating

divination　the　leading　features　of　modern　physiology　and　zoology。

Organic　molecules　everywhere　diffused　or　everywhere　growing；　species

of　globules　constantly　in　course　of　decay　and　restoration；　which；

through　the　blind　and　spontaneous　development；　transform　themselves；

multiply　and　combine；　and　which；　without　either　foreign　direction　or

any　preconceived　end；　solely　through　the　effect　of　their　structure　and

surroundings；　unite　together　to　form　those　masterly　organisms　which　we

call　plants　and　animals　：　in　the　beginning；　the　simplest　forms；　and

next　a　slow；　gradual；　complex　and　perfected　organization　；　the　organ

created　through　habits；　necessity　and　surrounding　medium；　heredity

transmitting　acquired　modifications；＇5＇　all　denoting　in　advance；　in　a

state　of　conjecture　and　approximation；　the　cellular　theory　of　later

physiologists＇6＇　and　the　conclusions　of　Darwin。＇7＇　In　the　picture

which　the　human　mind　draws　of　nature；　the　general　outline　is　marked　by

the　science　of　the　eighteenth　century；　the　arrangement　of　its　plan　and

of　the　principal　masses　being　so　correctly　marked；　that　to　day　the

leading　lines　remain　intact。　　With　the　exception　of　a　few　partial

corrections　we　have　nothing　to　efface。



This　vast　supply　of　positive　or　probable　facts；　either　demonstrated

or　anticipated；　furnishes　food；　substance　and　impulse　to　the　intellect

of　the　eighteenth　century。　　Consider　the　leaders　of　public　opinion；　the

promoters　of　the　new　philosophy：　they　are　all；　in　various　degrees；

versed　in　the　physical　and　natural　sciences。　　Not　only　are　they

familiar　with　theories　and　authorities；　but　again　they　have　a　personal

knowledge　of　facts　and　things。　　Voltaire＇8＇　is　among　the　first　to

explain　the　optical　and　astronomical　theories　of　Newton；　and　again　to

make　calculations；　observations　and　experiments　of　his　own。　　He　writes

memoirs　for　the　Academy　of　Sciences　〃On　the　Measure　of　Motive　Forces；〃

and　〃On　the　Nature　and　Diffusion　of　Heat。〃　He　handles　Réamur's

thermometer；　Newton's　prism；　and　Muschenbrock's　pyrometer。　　In　his

laboratory　at　Cirey　he　has　all　the　known　apparatus　for　physics　and

chemistry。　　He　experiments　with　his　own　hand　on　the　reflection　of　light

in　space；　on　the　increase　of　weight　in　calcified　metals；　on　the

renewal　of　amputated　parts　of　animals；　and　in　the　spirit　of　a　true

savant；　persistently；　with　constant　repetitions；　even　to　the　beheading

of　forty　snails　and　slugs；　to　verify　an　assertion　made　by　Spallanzani。

…　　The　same　curiosity　and　the　same　preparation　prevails　with　all

imbued　with　the　same　spirit。　　In　the　other　camp；　among　the　Cartesians；

about　to　disappear；　Fontenelle　is　an　excellent　mathematician；　the

competent　biographer　of　all　eminent　men　of　science；　the　official

secretary　and　true　representative　of　the　Academy　of　Sciences。　　In　other

places；　in　the　Academy　of　Bordeaux；　Montesquieu　reads　discourses　on

the　mechanism　of　the　echo；　and　on　the　use　of　the　renal　glands；　he

dissects　frogs；　tests　the　effect　of　heat　and　cold　on　animated　tissues；

and　publishes　observations　on　plants　and　insects。　　…　　Rousseau；　the

least　instructed　of　all；　attends　the　lectures　of　the　chemist　Rouelle；

botanizing　and　appropriating　to　himself　all　the　elements　of　human

knowledge　with　which　to　write　his　〃Emile。〃　　…　　Diderot　taught

mathematics　and　devoured　every　science　and　art　even　to　the　technical

processes　of　all　industries。　　D'Alembert　stands　in　the　first　rank　of

mathematicians。　　Buffon　translated　Newton's　theory　of　flux；　and　the

Vegetable　Statics　of　Hales；　he　is　in　turn　a　metallurgist；　optician；

geographer；　geologist　and；　last　of　all；　an　anatomist。　　Condillac；　to

explain　the　use　of　signs　and　the　relation　of　ideas；　writes　abridgments

of　arithmetic；　algebra；　mechanics　and　astronomy。＇9＇　Maupertuis；

Condorcet　and　Lalande　are　mathematicians；　physicists　and　astronomers；

d'Holbach；　Lamettrie　and　Cabanis　are　chemists；　naturalists

physiologists　and　physicians。　　…　　Prophets　of　a　superior　or　inferior

kind；　masters　or　pupils；　specialists　or　simple　amateurs；　all　draw

directly　or　indirectly　from　the　living　source　that　has　just　burst

forth。　　This　is　their　basis　when　they　begin　to　teach　about　Man；　what　he

is；　from　whence　he　came；　where　he　is　going；　what　he　may　become　and

what　he　should　be。　　A　new　point　of　departure　leads　to　new　points　of

view；　so　that　the　idea；　which　was　then　entertained　of　the　human　being

will　become　completely　transformed。



II。　　　SCIENCE　DETACHED　FROM　THEOLOGY。



Change　of　the　point　of　view　in　the　science　of　man。　　…　It　is　detached

from　theology　and　is　united　with　the　natural　sciences。



Let　us　suppose　a　mind　thoroughly　imbued　with　these　new　truths；　to

be　placed　on　the　orbit　of　Saturn；　and　let　him　observe＇10＇。　　Amidst　this

vast　and　overwhelming　space　and　in　these　boundless　solar

archipelagoes；　how　small　is　our　own　sphere；　and　the　earth；　what　a

grain　of　sand！　What　multitudes　of　worlds　beyond　our　own；　and；　if　life

exists　in　them；　what　combinations　are　possible　other　than　those　of

which　we　are　the　result！　What　is　life；　what　is　organic　substance　in

the　monstrous　universe　but　an　indifferent　mass；　a　passing　accident；

the　corruption　of　a　few　epidermic　particles？　And　if　this　be　life；　what

is　that　humanity　which　is　so　small　a　fragment　of　it？　　…　　Such　is　Man

in　nature；　an　atom；　and　an　ephemeral　particle；　let　this　not　be　lost

sight　of　in　our　theories　concerning　his　origin；　his　importance；　and

his　destiny。



　〃A　mite　that　would　consider　itself　as　the　center　of　all　things

would　be　grotesque；　and　therefore　it　is　essential　that　an　insect

almost　infinitely　small　should　not　show　conceit　almost　infinitely

great。〃＇11＇　…



How　slow　has　been　the　evolution　of　the　globe　itself！　What　myriads

of　ages　between　the　first　cooling　of　its　mass　and　the　beginnings　of

life！＇12＇　Of　what　consequence　is　the　turmoil　of　our　ant…hill　compared

to　the　geological　tragedy　in　which　we　have　born　no　part；　the　strife

between　fire　and　water；　the　thickening　of　the　earth's　crust；　formation

of　the　universal　sea；　the　construction　and　separation　of　continents！

Previous　to　our　historical　record　what　a　long　history　of　vegetable　and

animal　existence！　What　a　succession　of　flora　and　fauna！　What

generations　of　marine　organisms　in　forming　the　strata　of　sediment！

What　generations　of　plans　in　forming　the　deposits　of　coal！　What

transformations　of　climate　to　drive　the　pachydermata　away　from　the

pole！　　…　　And　now　comes　Man；　the　latest　of　all；　he　is　like　the

uppermost　bud　on　the　top　of　a　tall　ancient　tree；　flourishing　there　for

a　while；　but；　like　the　tree；　destined　to　perish　after　a　few　seasons；

when　the　increasing　and　foretold　congelation　allowing　the　tree　to　live

shall　force　the　tree　to　die。　　He　is　not　alone　on　the　branch；　beneath

him；　around　him；　on　a　level　with　him；　other　buds　shoot　forth；　born　of

the　same　sap；　but　he　must　not　forget；　if　he　would　comprehend　his　own

being；　that；　along　with　himself；　other　lives　exist　in　his　vicinity；

graduated　up　to　him　and　issuing　from　the　same　trunk。　　If　he　is　unique

he　is　not　isolated；　being　an　animal　among　other　animals；＇13＇　in　him

and　with　them；　substance；　organization　and　birth；　the　formation　and

renewal　of　the　functions；　senses　and　appetites；　are　similar；　while　his

superior　intelligence；　like　their　rudimentary　intelligence；　has　for　an

indispensable　organ　a　nervous　matter　whose　structure　is　the　same　with

him　as　with　them。　　…　　Thus　surrounded；　brought　forth　and　borne　along

by　nature；　is　it　to　be　supposed　that　in　nature　he　is　an　empire　within

an　empire？　He　is　there　as　the　part　of　a　whole；　by　virtue　of　being　a

physical　body；　a　chemical　composition；　an　animated　organism；　a

sociable　animal；　among　other　bodies；　other　compositions；　other　social

animals；　all　analogous　to　him；　and　by　virtue　of　these　classifications；

he　is；　like　them；　subject　to　laws。　　…　　For；　if　the　first　cause　is

unknown　to　us；　and　we　dispute　among　ourselves　to　know　what　it　is；

whether　innate　or　external；　we　affirm　with　certainty　the　mode　of　its

action；　and　that　it　operates　only　according　to　fixed　and　general　laws。

Every　circumstance；　whatever　it　may　be；　is　conditioned；　and；　its

conditions　being　given；　it　never　fails　to　conform　to　them。　　Of　two

links　forming　a　chain；　the　first　always　draws　on　the　second。　　There　are

laws：



*　for　numbers；　forms；　and　motions；



*　for　the　revolution　of　the　planets　and　the　fall　of　bodies；



*　for　the　diffusion　of　light　and　the　radiation　of　heat；



*　for　the　attractions　and　repulsion　of　electricity；



*　for　chemical　combinations；　and



*　for　the　birth；　equilibrium　and　dissolution　of　organic　bodies。



They　exist　for　the　birth；　maintenance；　and　development　of　human

societies；　for　the　formation；　conflict；　and　direction　of　ideas；

passions　and　determinations　of　human　individuals。＇14＇　In　all　this；　Man

is　bound　up　with　nature；　hence；　if　we　would　comprehend　him；　we　must

observe　him　in　her；　after　her；　and　like　her；　with　the　same

independence；　the　same　precautions；　and　in　the　same　spirit。　　Through

this　remark　alone　the　method　of　the　moral　sciences　is　fixed。　　In

history；　in　psychology；　in　morals；　in　polit