the origins of contemporary france-1-第77章

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great　change　takes　place　in　the　condition　of　the　Third…Estate　。　　The

bourgeois　has　worked；　manufactured；　traded；　earned　and　saved　money；

and　has　daily　become　richer　and　richer。＇3＇　This　great　expansion　of

enterprises；　of　trade；　of　speculation　and　of　fortunes　dates　from

Law；＇4＇　arrested　by　war　it　reappears　with　more　vigor　and　more

animation　at　each　interval　of　peace　after　the　treaty　of　Aix…la…

Chapelle　in　1748；　and　that　of　Paris　in　1763；　and　especially　after　the

beginning　of　the　reign　of　Louis　XVI。　　The　exports　of　France　which

amounted　to



　　　106　millions　in　1720



　　　124　millions　in　1735



　　　192　millions　in　1748



　　　257　millions　in　1755



　　　309　millions　in　1776



　　　354　millions　in　1788。



　　　In　1786　Saint　Domingo　alone　ships　back　to　France　for　131

millions　of　its　products；　and　in　return　receives　44　millions　in

merchandise。　　As　a　result　of　these　exchanges　we　see；　at　Nantes；　and　at

Bordeaux；　the　creation　of　colossal　commercial　houses。　　〃I　consider

Bordeaux；　says　Arthur　Young；　as　richer　and　doing　more　business　than

any　city　in　England　except　London；　。　　。　　。　　of　late　years　the　progress

of　maritime　commerce　has　been　more　rapid　in　France　than　even　in

England。〃＇5＇　According　to　an　administrator　of　the　day；　if　the　taxes　on

the　consumption　of　products　daily　increase　the　revenue；　this　is

because　the　industry　since　1774　has　developed　a　number　of　new

products＇6＇。　　And　this　progress　is　regular　and　constant。　　〃We　may

calculate；〃　says　Necker　in　1781；　〃on　an　increase　of　two　millions　a

year　on　all　the　duties　on　consumption。〃　　　　　　In　this　great　exertion

of　innovation；　labor　and　engineering；　Paris；　constantly　growing；　is

the　central　workshop。　　It　enjoys；　to　a　much　greater　extent　than　today；

the　monopoly　of　all　works　of　intelligence　and　taste；　books；　pictures；

engravings；　statues；　jewelry；　toilet　details；　carriages；　furniture；

articles　of　fashion　and　rarity；　whatever　affords　pleasure　and

ornamentation　for　an　elegant　worldly　society；　all　Europe　is　supplied

by　it。　　In　1774　its　trade　in　books　is　estimated　at　45　millions；　and

that　of　London　at　only　one…quarter　of　that　sum＇7＇。　　Upon　the　profits

many　immense　and　even　more　numerous　moderate　fortunes　were　built　up；

and　these　now　became　available　for　investment。　　　　　　In　fact；　we　see

the　noblest　hands　stretching　out　to　receive　them；　princes　of　the

blood；　provincial　assemblies；　assemblies　of　the　clergy；　and；　at　the

head　of　all；　the　king；　who；　the　most　needy；　borrows　at　ten　percent　and

is　always　in　search　of　additional　lenders。　　Already　under　Fleury；　the

debt　has　augmented　to　18　millions　in　interests；　and　during　the　Seven

years'　War；　to　34　millions。　　Under　Louis　XVI。；　M。　Necker　borrows　a

capital　of　530　millions；　M。　Joly　de　Fleury；　300　millions；　M。　de

Calonne；　800　millions；　in　all　1630　millions　over　a　period　of　ten

years。　　The　interest　of　the　public　debt；　only　45　millions　in　1755；

reaches　106　millions　in　1776　and　amounts　to　206　millions　in　1789＇8＇。

What　creditors　which　these　few　figures　tell　us　about　！　　As　the　Third…

Estate　；　it　must　be　noted；　is　the　sole　class　making　and　saving　money；

nearly　all　these　creditors　belong　it。　　Thousands　of　others　must　be

added　to　these。　　In　the　first　place；　the　financiers　who　make　advances

to　the　government；　advances　that　are　indispensable；　because；　from　time

immemorial；　it　has　eaten　its　corn　on　the　blade；　so　the　present　year　is

always　gnawing　into　the　product　of　coming　years；　there　are　80　millions

of　advances　in　1759；　and　170　millions　in　1783。　　In　the　second　place

there　are　so　many　suppliers；　large　and　small；　who；　on　all　parts　of　the

territory；　keep　accounts　with　the　government　for　their　supplies　and

for　public　works；　a　veritable　army　and　increasing　daily；　since　the

government；　impelled　by　centralization；　takes　sole　responsibility　for

all　ventures；　and；　requested　by　public　opinion；　it　increases　the

number　of　undertakings　useful　to　the　public。　　Under　Louis　XV。　　the

State　builds　six　thousand　leagues　of　roads；　and　under　Louis　XVI。　　in

1788；　to　guard　against　famine；　it　purchases　grain　to　the　amount　of

forty　millions。



　　　Through　this　increase　of　activity　and　its　demands　for　capital

the　State　becomes　the　universal　debtor；　henceforth　public　affairs　are

no　longer　exclusively　the　king's　business。　　His　creditors　become

uneasy　at　his　expenditures；　for　it　is　their　money　he　wastes；　and；　if

he　proves　a　bad　administrator；　they　will　be　ruined。　　They　want　to　know

something　of　his　budget；　to　examine　his　books：　a　lender　always　has　the

right　to　look　after　his　securities。　　We　accordingly　see　the　bourgeois

raising　his　head　and　beginning　to　pay　close　attention　to　the　great

machine　whose　performances；　hitherto　concealed　from　vulgar　eyes；　have；

up　to　the　present　time；　been　kept　a　state　secret。　　He　becomes　a

politician；　and；　at　the　same　time；　discontented。　　For　it　cannot　be

denied　that　these　matters；　in　which　he　is　interested；　are　badly

conducted。　　Any　young　man　of　good　family　managing　affairs　in　the　same

way　would　be　checked。　　The　expenses　of　the　administration　of　the　State

are　always　in　excess　of　the　revenue＇9＇。　　According　to　official

admissions＇10＇　the　annual　deficit　amounted　to　70　in　1770；　and　80

millions　in　1783；　when　one　has　attempted　to　reduce　this　it　has　been

through　bankruptcies；　one　to　the　tune　of　two　milliards　at　the　end　of

the　reign　of　Louis　XIV；　and　another　almost　equal　to　it　in　the　time　of

Law；　and　another　on　from　a　third　to　a　half　of　all　the　interests　in　the

time　of　Terray；　without　mentioning　suppressions　in　detail；　reductions；

indefinite　delays　in　payment；　and　other　violent　and　fraudulent　means

which　a　powerful　debtor　employs　with　impunity　against　a　feeble

creditor。　　〃Fifty…six　violations　of　public　faith　have　occurred　from

Henry　IV　down　to　the　ministry　of　M。　de　Loménie　inclusive；〃＇11＇　while　a

last　bankruptcy；　more　frightful　than　the　others；　loom　up　on　the

horizon。　　Several　persons；　Bezenval　and　Linguet　for　instance；

earnestly　recommend　it　as　a　necessary　and　salutary　amputation。　　Not

only　are　there　precedents　for　this；　and　in　this　respect　the　government

will　do　no　more　than　follow　its　own　example；　but　such　is　its　daily

practice；　since　it　lives　only　from　day　to　day；　by　dint　of　expedients

and　delays；　digging　one　hole　to　stop　up　another；　and　escaping　failure

only　through　the　forced　patience　which　it　imposes　on　its　creditors。

With　it；　says　a　contemporary；　people　were　never　sure　of　anything；

being　always　obliged　to　wait＇12＇。　　〃Were　their　capital　invested　in　its

loans；　they　could　never　rely　on　a　fixed　date　for　the　payment　of

interest。　　Did　they　build　ships；　repair　highways；　or　the　soldiers

clothed；　they　had　no　guarantees　for　their　advances；　no　certificates　of

repayment；　being　reduced　to　calculate　the　chances　involved　in　a

ministerial　contract　as　they　would　the　risks　of　a　bold　speculation。〃

It　pays　if　it　can　and　only　when　it　can；　even　the　members　of　the

household；　the　purveyors　of　the　table　and　the　personal　attendants　of

the　king。　　In　1753　the　domestics　of　Louis　XV　had　received　nothing　for

three　years。　　We　have　seen　how　his　grooms　went　out　to　beg　during　the

night　in　the　streets　of　Versailles；　how　his　purveyors　〃hid

themselves；〃　how　；　under　Louis　XVI　in　1778；　there　were　792；620　francs

due　to　the　wine…merchant；　and　3；467；980　francs　to　the　purveyor　of　fish

and　meat＇13＇。　　In　1788；　so　great　is　the　distress；　the　Minister　de

Loménie　appropriates　and　expends　the　funds　of　a　private　subscription

raised　for　a　hospital；　and；　at　the　time　of　his　resignation；　the

treasury　is　empty；　save　450；000　francs；　half　of　which　he　puts　in　his

pocket。　　What　an　administration！　　　　In　the　presence　of　this　debtor；

evidently　becoming　insolvent；　all　people；　far　and　near；　interested　in

his　business；　consult　together　with　alarm；　and　debtors　are

innumerable；　consisting　of　bankers；　merchants；　manufacturers；

employees；　lenders　of　every　kind　and　degree；　and；　in　the　front　rank；

the　capitalists；　who　have　put　all　their　means　for　life　into　his　hands；

and　who　are　to　beg　should　he　not　pay　them　annually　the　44　millions　he

owes　them；　the　industrialists　and　traders　who　have　entrusted　their

commercial　integrity　to　him　and　who　would　shrink　with　horror　from

failure　as　its　issue；　and　after　these　come　their　creditors；　their

clerks；　their　relations；　in　short；　the　largest　portion　of　the　laboring

and　peaceable　class　which；　thus　far；　had　obeyed　without　a　murmur　and

never　dreamed　of　bringing　the　established　order　of　things　under　its

control。　　Henceforth　this　class　will　exercise　control　attentively；

distrustfully　and　angrily。　　Woe　to　those　who　are　at　fault；　for　they

well　know　that　the　ruin　of　the　State　is　their　ruin。







　　　III。　　　SOCIAL　PROMOTION。



　　　He　rises　on　the　social　ladder。　　…　The　noble　draws　near　to　him。

…　He　becomes　cultivated。　　…　He　enters　into　society。　　…　He　regards

himself　as　the　equal　of　the　noble。　　…　Privileges　an　annoyance。



　　　　　Meanwhile　this　class　has　climbed　up　the　social　ladder；　and；

through　its　élite；　rejoined　those　in　the　highest　position。　　Formerly

between　Dorante　and　M。　Jourdain；　between　Don　Juan　and　M。　Dimanche；＇14＇

between　M。　Sotenville　himself　and　Georges　Dandin；　the　distance　was

vast；　everything　was　different　…　dress；　house；　habits；　characters；

points　of　honor；　ideas　and　language。　　On　the　one　hand　the　nobles　are

drawn　nearer　to　the　Third…Estate　and；　on　the　other；　the　Third…Estate

is　drawn　nearer　to　the　nobles；　actual　equality　having　preceded

equality　as　a　right。　　　　　　On　the　approach　of　the　year　1789　it　was

difficult　to　distinguish　one　from　the　other　in　the　street。　　The　sword

is　no　longer　worn　by　gentlemen　in　the　city；　they　have　abandoned

embroideries　and　laces；　and　walk　about　in　plain　frock…coats；　or　drive

themselves　in　their　cabriolets＇15＇。　　〃The　simplicity　of　English

customs；〃　and　the　customs　of　the　Third…Estate　seem　to　them　better

adapted　to　ordinary　life。　　Their　prominence　proves　irksome　to　them　and

they　grow　weary　of　being　always　on　parade。　　Henceforth　they　accept

familiarity　that　they　may　enjoy　freedom　of　action；　and　are　content　〃to

mingle　with　their　fellow…citizens　without　obstacle　or　ostentation。　　　…

…　　〃It　is　certainly　a　grave　sign；　and　the　old　feudal　spirits　have

reason　to　tremble。　　The　Marquis　de　Mirabeau；　on　learning　that　his　son

wishes　to　act　as　his　own　lawyer；　consoles　himself　by　seeing　others；　of

still　higher　rank；　do　much　worse＇16＇。



　　　〃As　it　was　difficult　to　accept　the　idea　that　the　grandson　of　my

father；　whom　we　just　had　seen　pass　by　on　the　promenade；　everybody；

young　and　old；　raising　their　hats　to　him　from　afar；　would　soon　be　seen

at　the　bar　of　a　lower　tribunal；　there　to　contest　minor　legal　matters

with　pettifoggers；　but　I　said　to　myself；　however；　that　Louis　XIV　would

be　still　more　astonished　had　he　seen　the　wife　of　his　grand…successor

dressed　in　a　peasant's　frock　and　apron；　with　no　attendants；　not　a　page

or　any　one　else；　running　about　the　palace　and　the　terraces；　requesting

the　first　scamp　in