the origins of contemporary france-1-第84章

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！



of　heath　and　moor　form　extensive　deserts。〃＇26＇　　Let　a　person　traverse

Anjou；　Maine；　Brittany；　Poitou；　Limousin；　la　Marche；　Berry；　Nivernais；

Bourbonnais　and　Auvergne；　and　he　finds　one…half　of　these　provinces　in

heaths；　forming　immense　plains；　all　of　which　might　be　cultivated。〃　In

Touraine；　in　Poitou　and　in　Berry　they　form　solitary　expanses　of　30；000

arpents。　　In　one　canton　alone；　near　Preuilly；　40；000　arpents　of　good

soil　consist　of　heath。　　The　agricultural　society　of　Rennes　declares

that　two…thirds　of　Brittany　is　lying　waste。　　This　is　not　sterility　but

decadence。　　The　régime　invented　by　Louis　XIV　has　produced　its　effect；

the　soil　for　a　century　past　has　been　reverting　to　a　wild　state。



　〃We　see　only　abandoned　and　ruinous　chateaux；　the　principal　towns

of　the　fiefs；　in　which　the　nobility　formerly　lived　at　their　ease；　are

all　now　occupied　by　poor　tenant　herdsmen　whose　scanty　labor　hardly

suffices　for　their　subsistence；　and　a　remnant　of　tax　ready　to

disappear　through　the　ruin　of　the　proprietors　and　the　desertion　of　the

settlers。〃



　In　the　election　district　of　Confolens　a　piece　of　property　rented

for　2；956　livres　in　1665；　brings　in　only　900　livres　in　1747。　　On　the

confines　of　la　Marche　and　of　Berry　a　domain　which；　in　166o；　honorably

supported　two　seigniorial　families　is　now　simply　a　small　unproductive

tenant…farm；　〃the　traces　of　the　furrows　once　made　by　the　plow…iron

being　still　visible　on　the　surrounding　heaths。〃　Sologne；　once

flourishing；＇27＇　becomes　a　marsh　and　a　forest；　a　hundred　years　earlier

it　produced　three　times　the　quantity　of　grain；　two…thirds　of　its　mills

are　gone；　not　a　vestige　of　its　vineyards　remains；　〃grapes　have　given

way　to　the　heath。〃　Thus　abandoned　by　the　spade　and　the　plow；　a　vast

portion　of　the　soil　ceases　to　feed　man；　while　the　rest；　poorly

cultivated；　scarcely　provides　the　simplest　necessities＇28＇。



In　the　first　place；　on　the　failure　of　a　crop；　this　portion　remains

untilled；　its　occupant　is　too　poor　to　purchase　seed；　the　intendant　is

often　obliged　to　distribute　seed；　without　which　the　disaster　of　the

current　year　would　be　followed　by　sterility　the　following　year＇29＇。

Every　calamity；　accordingly；　in　these　days　affects　the　future　as　well

as　the　present；　during　the　two　years　of　1784　and　1785；　around

Toulouse；　the　drought　having　caused　the　loss　of　all　draft　animals；

many　of　the　cultivators　are　obliged　to　let　their　fields　lie　fallow。　　In

the　second　place；　cultivation；　when　it　does　take　place；　is　carried　on

according　to　medieval　modes。　　Arthur　Young；　in　1789；　considers　that

French　agriculture　has　not　progressed　beyond　that　of　the　tenth

century＇30＇。　　Except　in　Flanders　and　on　the　plains　of　Alsace；　the

fields　lie　fallow　one　year　out　of　three；　and　oftentimes　one　year　out

of　two。　　The　implements　are　poor；　there　are　no　plows　made　of　iron；　in

many　places　the　plow　of　Virgil's　time　is　still　in　use。　　Cart…axles　and

wheel…tires　are　made　of　wood；　while　a　harrow　often　consists　of　the

trestle　of　a　cart。　　There　are　few　animals　and　but　little　manure；　the

capital　bestowed　on　cultivation　is　three　times　less　than　that　of　the

present　day。　　The　yield　is　slight：　〃our　ordinary　farms；〃　says　a　good

observer；　〃taking　one　with　another　return　about　six　times　the　seed

sown。〃＇31＇　　In　1778；　on　the　rich　soil　around　Toulouse；　wheat　returns

about　five　for　one；　while　at　the　present　day　it　yields　eight　to　one

and　more。　　Arthur　Young　estimates　that；　in　his　day；　the　English　acre

produces　twenty…eight　bushels　of　grain；　and　the　French　acre　eighteen

bushels；　and　that　the　value　of　the　total　product　of　the　same　area　for

a　given　length　of　time　is　thirty…six　pounds　sterling　in　England　and

only　twenty…five　in　France。　　As　the　parish　roads　are　frightful；　and

transportation　often　impracticable；　it　is　clear　that；　in　remote

cantons；　where　poor　soil　yields　scarcely　three　times　the　seed　sown；

food　is　not　always　obtainable。　　How　do　they　manage　to　live　until　the

next　crop？　This　is　the　question　always　under　consideration　previous

to；　and　during；　the　Revolution。　　I　find；　in　manuscript　correspondence；

the　syndics　and　mayors　of　villages　estimating　the　quantities　for　local

subsistence　at　so　many　bushels　in　the　granaries；　so　many　sheaves　in

the　barns；　so　many　mouths　to　be　filled；　so　many　days　to　wait　until



the　August　wheat　comes　in；　and　concluding　on　short　supplies　for

two；　three　and　four　months。　　Such　a　state　of　inter…communication　and　of

agriculture　condemns　a　country　to　periodical　famines；　and　I　venture　to

state　that；　alongside　of　the　small…pox　which　out　of　eight　deaths

causes　one；　another　endemic　disease　exists；　as　prevalent　and　as

destructive；　and　this　disease　is　starvation。



We　can　easily　imagine　that　it　is　the　common　people；　and　especially

the　peasants　who　suffers。　　An　increase　of　the　price　of　bread　prevents

him　from　getting　any；　and　even　without　that　increase；　he　obtains　it

with　difficulty。　　Wheat　bread　cost；　as　today；　three　sous　per　pound；＇32＇

but　as　the　average　day's　work　brought　only　nineteen　sous　instead　of

forty；　the　day…laborer；　working　the　same　time；　could　buy　only　the　half

of　a　loaf　instead　of　a　full　loaf＇33＇。　　Taking　everything　into　account；

and　wages　being　estimated　according　to　the　price　of　grain；　we　find

that　the　husbandman's　manual　labor　then　procured　him　959　litres　of

wheat；　while　nowadays　it　gives　him　1；851　litres；　his　well…being；

accordingly；　has　advanced　ninety…three　per　cent。；　which　suffices　to

show　to　what　extent　his　predecessors　suffered　privations。　　And　these

privations　are　peculiar　to　France。　　Through　analogous　observations　and

estimates　Arthur　Young　shows　that　in　France　those　who　lived　on　field

labor；　and　they　constituted　the　great　majority；　are　seventy…six　per

cent。　　less　comfortable　than　the　same　laborers　in　England；　while　they

are　seventy…six　per　cent。　　less　well　fed　and　well　clothed；　besides

being　worse　treated　in　sickness　and　in　health。　　The　result　is　that　in

seven…eighths　of　the　kingdom；　there　are　no　farmers；　but　simply

métayers　（a　kind　of　poor　tenants）＇34＇。　　The　peasant　is　too　poor　to

undertake　cultivation　on　his　own　account；　possessing　no　agricultural

capital＇35＇。　　〃The　proprietor；　desirous　of　improving　his　land；　finds　no

one　to　cultivate　it　but　miserable　creatures　possessing　only　a　pair　of

hands；　he　is　obliged　to　advance　everything　for　its　cultivation　at　his

own　expense；　animals；　implements　and　seed；　and　even　to　advance　the

wherewithal　to　this　tenant　to　feed　him　until　the　first　crop　comes　in。〃

…　　〃At　Vatan；　for　example；　in　Berry；　the　tenants；　almost　every　year；

borrow　bread　of　the　proprietor　in　order　to　await　the　harvesting。〃　　…

〃Very　rarely　is　one　found　who　is　not　indebted　to　his　master　at　least

one　hundred　livres　a　year。〃



Frequently　the　latter　proposes　to　abandon　the　entire　crop　to　them

on　condition　that　they　demand　nothing　of　him　during　the　year；　〃these

miserable　creatures〃　have　refused；　left　to　themselves；　they　would　not

be　sure　of　keeping　themselves　alive。　　…　　In　Limousin　and　in　Angoumois

their　poverty　is　so　great＇36＇　〃that；　deducting　the　taxes　to　which　they

are　subject；　they　have　no　more　than　from　twenty…five　to　thirty　livres

each　person　per　annum　to　spend；　and　not　in　money；　it　must　be　stated；

but　counting　whatever　they　consume　in　kind　out　of　the　crops　they

produce。　　Frequently　they　have　less；　and　when　they　cannot　possibly　make

a　living　the　master　is　obliged　to　support　them。　　。　　。　　。　　The　métayer　is

always　reduced　to　just　what　is　absolutely　necessary　to　keep　him　from

starving。〃　As　to　the　small　proprietor；　the　villager　who　plows　his　land

himself；　his　condition　is　but　little　better。　　〃Agriculture；＇37＇　as　our

peasants　practice　it；　is　a　veritable　drudgery；　they　die　by　thousands

in　childhood；　and　in　maturity　they　seek　places　everywhere　but　where

they　should　be。〃



　In　1783；　throughout　the　plain　of　the　Toulousain　they　eat　only

maize；　a　mixture　of　flour；　common　seeds　and　very　little　wheat；　those

on　the　mountains　feed；　a　part　of　the　year；　on　chestnuts；　the　potato　is

hardly　known；　and；　according　to　Arthur　Young；　ninety…nine　out　of　a

hundred　peasants　would　refuse　to　eat　it。　　According　to　the　reports　of

intendants；　the　basis　of　food；　in　Normandy；　is　oats；　in　the　election…

district　of　Troyes；　buck…wheat；　in　the　Marche　and　in　Limousin；

buckwheat　with　chestnuts　and　radishes；　in　Auvergne；　buckwheat；

chestnuts；　milk…curds　and　a　little　salted　goat's　meat；　in　Beauce；　a

mixture　of　barley　and　rye；　in　Berry；　a　mixture　of　barley　and　oats。

There　is　no　wheat　bread；　the　peasant　consumes　inferior　flour　only

because　he　is　unable　to　pay　two　sous　a　pound　for　his　bread。　　There　is

no　butcher's　meat；　at　best　he　kills　one　pig　a　year。　　His　dwelling　is

built　of　clay　（pise）；　roofed　with　thatch；　without　windows；　and　the

floor　is　the　beaten　ground。　　Even　when　the　soil　furnishes　good　building

materials；　stone；　slate　and　tile；　the　windows　have　no　sashes。　　In　a

parish　in　Normandy；＇38＇　in　1789；　〃most　of　the　dwellings　consist　of

four　posts。〃　They　are　often　mere　stables　or　barns　〃to　which　a　chimney

has　been　added　made　of　four　poles　and　some　mud。〃　Their　clothes　are

rags；　and　often　in　winter　these　are　muslin　rags。　　In　Quercy　and

elsewhere；　they　have　no　stockings；　or　wooden　shoes。　　〃It　is　not　in　the

power　of　an　English　imagination；〃　says　Arthur　Young；　〃to　imagine　the

animals　that　waited　on　us　here　at　the　Chapeau　Rouge；　　…　　creatures

that　were　called　by　courtesy　Souillac　women；　but　in　reality　walking

dung…hills。　　But　a　neatly　dressed；　clean　waiting…girl　at　an　inn；　will

be　looked　for　in　vain　in　France。〃　On　reading　descriptions　made　on　the

spot　we　see　in　France　a　similar　aspect　of　country　and　of　peasantry　as

in　Ireland；　at　least　in　its　broad　outlines。







III。　　THE　COUNTRYSIDE。



Aspects　of　the　country　and　of　the　peasantry。



In　the　most　fertile　regions；　for　instance；　in　Limagne；　both

cottages　and　faces　denote　〃misery　and　privation。〃＇39＇　〃The　peasants

are　generally　feeble；　emaciated　and　of　slight　stature。〃　Nearly　all

derive　wheat　and　wine　from　their　homesteads；　but　they　are　forced　to

sell　this　to　pay　their　rents　and　taxes；　they　eat　black　bread；　made　of

rye　and　barley；　and　their　sole　beverage　is　water　poured　on　the　lees

and　the　husks。　　〃An　Englishman＇40＇　who　has　not　traveled　can　not　imagine

the　figure　made　by　infinitely　the　greater　part　of　the　countrywomen　in

France。〃　Arthur　Young；　who　stops　to　talk　with　one　of　these　in

Champagne；　says　that　〃this　woman；　at　no　great　distance；　might　have

been　taken　for　sixty　or　seventy；　her　figure　was　so　bent　and　her　face

so　hardened　and　furrowed　by　labor；　　…　　but　she　said　she　was　only

twenty…eight。〃　This　woman；　her　husband　and　her　household；　afford　a

sufficiently　accurate　example　of　the　condition　of　the　small

proprietary　husbandmen。　　Their　property　consists　simply　of　a　patch　of

ground；　with　a　cow　and　a　poor　little　horse；　their　seven　children

consume　the　whole　of　the　cow's　milk。　　They　owe　to　one　seignior　a

franchard　（forty…two　pounds）　of　flour；　and　th