the story of mankind-第12章

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OTHER　FOR　THE　POSSESSION　OF　THE

WESTERN　MEDITERRANEAN　AND　CARTHAGE

WAS　DESTROYED





THE　little　Phoenician　trading　post　of　Kart…hadshat　stood

on　a　low　hill　which　overlooked　the　African　Sea；　a　stretch　of

water　ninety　miles　wide　which　separates　Africa　from　Europe。

It　was　an　ideal　spot　for　a　commercial　centre。　Almost　too　ideal。

It　grew　too　fast　and　became　too　rich。　When　in　the　sixth　century

before　our　era；　Nebuchadnezzar　of　Babylon　destroyed

Tyre；　Carthage　broke　off　all　further　relations　with　the　Mother

Country　and　became　an　independent　statethe　great　western

advance…post　of　the　Semitic　races。



Unfortunately　the　city　had　inherited　many　of　the　traits

which　for　a　thousand　years　had　been　characteristic　of　the

Phoenicians。　It　was　a　vast　business…house；　protected　by　a

strong　navy；　indifferent　to　most　of　the　finer　aspects　of　life。

The　city　and　the　surrounding　country　and　the　distant　colonies

were　all　ruled　by　a　small　but　exceedingly　powerful　group　of

rich　men；　The　Greek　word　for　rich　is　‘‘ploutos''　and　the　Greeks

called　such　a　government　by　‘‘rich　men''　a　‘‘Plutocracy。''　Carthage

was　a　plutocracy　and　the　real　power　of　the　state　lay　in

the　hands　of　a　dozen　big　ship…owners　and　mine…owners　and

merchants　who　met　in　the　back　room　of　an　office　and　regarded

their　common　Fatherland　as　a　business　enterprise　which　ought

to　yield　them　a　decent　profit。　They　were　however　wide　awake

and　full　of　energy　and　worked　very　hard。



As　the　years　went　by　the　influence　of　Carthage　upon　her

neighbours　increased　until　the　greater　part　of　the　African

coast；　Spain　and　certain　regions　of　France　were　Carthaginian

possessions；　and　paid　tribute；　taxes　and　dividends　to　the　mighty

city　on　the　African　Sea。



Of　course；　such　a　‘‘plutocracy''　was　forever　at　the　mercy　of

the　crowd。　As　long　as　there　was　plenty　of　work　and　wages

were　high；　the　majority　of　the　citizens　were　quite　contented；

allowed　their　‘‘betters''　to　rule　them　and　asked　no　embarrassing

questions。　But　when　no　ships　left　the　harbor；　when　no　ore

was　brought　to　the　smelting…ovens；　when　dockworkers　and

stevedores　were　thrown　out　of　employment；　then　there　were

grumblings　and　there　was　a　demand　that　the　popular　assembly

be　called　together　as　in　the　olden　days　when　Carthage　had

been　a　self…governing　republic。



To　prevent　such　an　occurrence　the　plutocracy　was　obliged

to　keep　the　business　of　the　town　going　at　full　speed。　They

had　managed　to　do　this　very　successfully　for　almost　five　hun…

dred　years　when　they　were　greatly　disturbed　by　certain　rumors

which　reached　them　from　the　western　coast　of　Italy。　It　was

said　that　a　little　village　on　the　banks　of　the　Tiber　had　suddenly

risen　to　great　power　and　was　making　itself　the　acknowledged

leader　of　all　the　Latin　tribes　who　inhabited　central　Italy。

It　was　also　said　that　this　village；　which　by　the　way　was　called

Rome；　intended　to　build　ships　and　go　after　the　commerce　of

Sicily　and　the　southern　coast　of　France。



Carthage　could　not　possibly　tolerate　such　competition。　The

young　rival　must　be　destroyed　lest　the　Carthaginian　rulers

lose　their　prestige　as　the　absolute　rulers　of　the　western

Mediterranean。　The　rumors　were　duly　investigated　and　in　a

general　way　these　were　the　facts　that　came　to　light。



The　west　coast　of　Italy　had　long　been　neglected　by　civilisation。

Whereas　in　Greece　all　the　good　harbours　faced　eastward

and　enjoyed　a　full　view　of　the　busy　islands　of　the　AEgean；

the　west　coast　of　Italy　contemplated　nothing　more　exciting

than　the　desolate　waves　of　the　Mediterranean。　The　country

was　poor。　It　was　therefore　rarely　visited　by　foreign　merchants

and　the　natives　were　allowed　to　live　in　undisturbed　possession

of　their　hills　and　their　marshy　plains。



The　first　serious　invasion　of　this　land　came　from　the　north。

At　an　unknown　date　certain　Indo…European　tribes　had　managed

to　find　their　way　through　the　passes　of　the　Alps　and　had

pushed　southward　until　they　had　filled　the　heel　and　the　toe　of

the　famous　Italian　boot　with　their　villages　and　their　flocks。

Of　these　early　conquerors　we　know　nothing。　No　Homer　sang

their　glory。　Their　own　accounts　of　the　foundation　of　Rome

（written　eight　hundred　years　later　when　the　little　city　had　become

the　centre　of　an　Empire）　are　fairy　stories　and　do　not　belong

in　a　history。　Romulus　and　Remus　jumping　across　each

other's　walls　（I　always　forget　who　jumped　across　whose　wall）

make　entertaining　reading；　but　the　foundation　of　the　City　of

Rome　was　a　much　more　prosaic　affair。　Rome　began　as　a　thousand

American　cities　have　done；　by　being　a　convenient　place

for　barter　and　horse…trading。　It　lay　in　the　heart　of　the　plains

of　central　Italy　The　Tiber　provided　direct　access　to　the　sea。

The　land…road　from　north　to　south　found　here　a　convenient

ford　which　could　be　used　all　the　year　around。　And　seven　little

hills　along　the　banks　of　the　river　offered　the　inhabitants　a　safe

shelter　against　their　enemies　who　lived　in　the　mountains　and

those　who　lived　beyond　the　horizon　of　the　nearby　sea。



The　mountaineers　were　called　the　Sabines。　They　were　a

rough　crowd　with　an　unholy　desire　for　easy　plunder。　But　they

were　very　backward。　They　used　stone　axes　and　wooden

shields　and　were　no　match　for　the　Romans　with　their　steel

swords。　The　sea…people　on　the　other　hand　were　dangerous

foes。　They　were　called　the　Etruscans　and　they　were　（and

still　are）　one　of　the　great　mysteries　of　history。　Nobody　knew

（or　knows）　whence　they　came；　who　they　were；　what　had　driven

them　away　from　their　original　homes。　We　have　found　the　remains

of　their　cities　and　their　cemeteries　and　their　waterworks

all　along　the　Italian　coast。　We　are　familiar　with　their　inscriptions。

But　as　no　one　has　ever　been　able　to　decipher　the　Etruscan

alphabet；　these　written　messages　are；　so　far；　merely　annoying

and　not　at　all　useful。



Our　best　guess　is　that　the　Etruscans　came　originally　from

Asia　Minor　and　that　a　great　war　or　a　pestilence　in　that　country

had　forced　them　to　go　away　and　seek　a　new　home　elsewhere。

Whatever　the　reason　for　their　coming；　the　Etruscans　played　a

great　role　in　history。　They　carried　the　pollen　of　the　ancient

civilisation　from　the　east　to　the　west　and　they　taught　the

Romans　who；　as　we　know；　came　from　the　north；　the　first　principles

of　architecture　and　street…building　and　fighting　and　art

and　cookery　and　medicine　and　astronomy。



But　just　as　the　Greeks　had　not　loved　their　AEgean　teachers；

in　this　same　way　did　the　Romans　hate　their　Etruscan　masters。

They　got　rid　of　them　as　soon　as　they　could　and　the　opportunity

offered　itself　when　Greek　merchants　discovered　the

commercial　possibilities　of　Italy　and　when　the　first　Greek

vessels　reached　Rome。　The　Greeks　came　to　trade；　but　they

stayed　to　instruct。　They　found　the　tribes　who　inhabited　the

Roman　country…side　（and　who　were　called　the　Latins）　quite

willing　to　learn　such　things　as　might　be　of　practical　use。　At

once　they　understood　the　great　benefit　that　could　be　derived

from　a　written　alphabet　and　they　copied　that　of　the　Greeks。

They　also　understood　the　commercial　advantages　of　a　well…

regulated　system　of　coins　and　measures　and　weights。　Eventually

the　Romans　swallowed　Greek　civilisation　hook；　line　and

sinker。



They　even　welcomed　the　Gods　of　the　Greeks　to　their

country。　Zeus　was　taken　to　Rome　where　he　became　known　as

Jupiter　and　the　other　divinities　followed　him。　The　Roman　Gods

however　never　were　quite　like　their　cheerful　cousins　who　had

accompanied　the　Greeks　on　their　road　through　life　and　through

history。　The　Roman　Gods　were　State　Functionaries。　Each

one　managed　his　own　department　with　great　prudence　and　a

deep　sense　of　justice；　but　in　turn　he　was　exact　in　demanding　the

obedience　of　his　worshippers。　This　obedience　the　Romans　rendered

with　scrupulous　care。　But　they　never　established　the

cordial　personal　relations　and　that　charming　friendship　which

had　existed　between　the　old　Hellenes　and　the　mighty　residents

of　the　high　Olympian　peak。



The　Romans　did　not　imitate　the　Greek　form　of　government；

but　being　of　the　same　Indo…European　stock　as　the　people

of　Hellas；　the　early　history　of　Rome　resembles　that　of

Athens　and　the　other　Greek　cities。　They　did　not　find　it　difficult

to　get　rid　of　their　kings；　the　descendants　of　the　ancient

tribal　chieftains。　But　once　the　kings　had　been　driven　from

the　city；　the　Romans　were　forced　to　bridle　the　power　of　the

nobles；　and　it　took　many　centuries　before　they　managed　to

establish　a　system　which　gave　every　free　citizen　of　Rome　a

chance　to　take　a　personal　interest　in　the　affairs　of　his　town。



Thereafter　the　Romans　enjoyed　one　great　advantage　over

the　Greeks。　They　managed　the　affairs　of　their　country　without

making　too　many　speeches。　They　were　less　imaginative

than　the　Greeks　and　they　preferred　an　ounce　of　action　to　a

pound　of　words。　They　understood　the　tendency　of　the　multi…

tude　（the　‘‘plebe；''　as　the　assemblage　of　free　citizens　was　called）

only　too　well　to　waste　valuable　time　upon　mere　talk。　They

therefore　placed　the　actual　business　of　running　the　city　into

the　hands　of　two　‘‘consuls''　who　were　assisted　by　a　council　of

Elders；　called　the　Senate　（because　the　word　‘‘senex''　means　an

old　man）。　As　a　matter　of　custom　and　practical　advantage　the

senators　were　elected　from　the　nobility。　But　their　power　had

been　strictly　defined。



Rome　at　one　time　had　passed　through　the　same　sort　of

struggle　between　the　poor　and　the　rich　which　had　forced

Athens　to　adopt　the　laws　of　Draco　and　Solon。　In　Rome　this

conflict　had　occurred　in　the　fifth　century　B。　C。　As　a　result　the

freemen　had　obtained　a　written　code　of　laws　which　protected

them　against　the　despotism　of　the　aristocratic　judges　by　the

institution　of　the　‘‘Tribune。''　These　Tribunes　were　city…

magistrates；　elected　by　the　freemen。　They　had　the　right　to　protect

any　citizen　against　those　actions　of　the　government　officials

which　were　thought　to　be　unjust。　A　consul　had　the　right　to

condemn　a　man　to　death；　but　if　the　case　had　not　been　absolutely

proved　the　Tribune　could　interfere　and　save　the　poor

fellow's　life。



But　when　I　use　the　word　Rome；　I　seem　to　refer　to　a　little

city　of　a　few　thousand　inhabitants。　And　the　real　strength　of

Rome　lay　in　the　country　districts　outside　her　walls。　And　it

was　in　the　government　of　these　outlying　provinces　that　Rome

at　an　early　age　showed　her　wonderful　gift　as　a　colonising

power。



In　very　early　times　Rome　had　been　the　only　strongly　fortified

city　in　central　Italy；　but　it　had　always　offered　a　hospitable

refuge　to　other　Latin　tribes　who　happened　to　be　in　danger　of

attack。　The　Latin　neighbours　had　recognised　the　advantages

of　a　close　union　with　such　a　powerful　friend　and　they　had　tried

to　find　a　basis　for　some　sort　of　defensive　and　offensive　alliance。

Other　nations；　Egyptians；　Babylonians；　Phoenicians；

even　Greeks；　would　have　insisted　upon　a　treaty　of　submission

on　the　part　of　the　‘‘barbarians；''　The　Romans　did　nothing　of