the story of mankind-第21章

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exposed　to　attacks　from　three　sides。　On　the　south　lived　the

ever　dangerous　Mohammedans。　The　western　coast　was　ravaged

by　the　Northmen。　The　eastern　frontier　（defenceless　except

for　the　short　stretch　of　the　Carpathian　mountains）　was　at

the　mercy　of　hordes　of　Huns；　Hungarians；　Slavs　and　Tartars。



The　peace　of　Rome　was　a　thing　of　the　remote　past；　a　dream

of　the　‘‘Good　Old　Days''　that　were　gone　for　ever。　It　was　a

question　of　‘‘fight　or　die；''　and　quite　naturally　people　preferred

to　fight。　Forced　by　circumstances；　Europe　became　an　armed

camp　and　there　was　a　demand　for　strong　leadership。　Both

King　and　Emperor　were　far　away。　The　frontiersmen　（and

most　of　Europe　in　the　year　1000　was　‘‘frontier''）　must　help

themselves。　They　willingly　submitted　to　the　representatives

of　the　king　who　were　sent　to　administer　the　outlying　districts；

PROVIDED　THEY　COULD　PROTECT　THEM　AGAINST　THEIR　ENEMIES。



Soon　central　Europe　was　dotted　with　small　principalities；

each　one　ruled　by　a　duke　or　a　count　or　a　baron　or　a　bishop；　as

the　case　might　be；　and　organised　as　a　fighting　unit。　These

dukes　and　counts　and　barons　had　sworn　to　be　faithful　to　the

king　who　had　given　them　their　‘‘feudum''　（hence　our　word

‘‘feudal；''）　in　return　for　their　loyal　services　and　a　certain

amount　of　taxes。　But　travel　in　those　days　was　slow　and　the

means　of　communication　were　exceedingly　poor。　The　royal

or　imperial　administrators　therefore　enjoyed　great　independence；

and　within　the　boundaries　of　their　own　province　they

assumed　most　of　the　rights　which　in　truth　belonged　to　the　king。



But　you　would　make　a　mistake　if　you　supposed　that　the

people　of　the　eleventh　century　objected　to　this　form　of

government。　They　supported　Feudalism　because　it　was　a　very

practical　and　necessary　institution。　Their　Lord　and　Master

usually　lived　in　a　big　stone　house　erected　on　the　top　of　a　steep

rock　or　built　between　deep　moats；　but　within　sight　of　his

subjects。　In　case　of　danger　the　subjects　found　shelter　behind

the　walls　of　the　baronial　stronghold。　That　is　why　they　tried

to　live　as　near　the　castle　as　possible　and　it　accounts　for　the

many　European　cities　which　began　their　career　around　a　feudal

fortress。



But　the　knight　of　the　early　middle　ages　was　much　more

than　a　professional　soldier。　He　was　the　civil　servant　of　that

day。　He　was　the　judge　of　his　community　and　he　was　the

chief　of　police。　He　caught　the　highwaymen　and　protected

the　wandering　pedlars　who　were　the　merchants　of　the　eleventh

century。　He　looked　after　the　dikes　so　that　the　countryside

should　not　be　flooded　（just　as　the　first　noblemen　had　done

in　the　valley　of　the　Nile　four　thousand　years　before）。　He

encouraged　the　Troubadours　who　wandered　from　place　to　place

telling　the　stories　of　the　ancient　heroes　who　had　fought　in　the

great　wars　of　the　migrations。　Besides；　he　protected　the　churches

and　the　monasteries　within　his　territory；　and　although　he　could

neither　read　nor　write；　（it　was　considered　unmanly　to　know

such　things；）　he　employed　a　number　of　priests　who　kept　his

accounts　and　who　registered　the　marriages　and　the　births　and

the　deaths　which　occurred　within　the　baronial　or　ducal　domains。



In　the　fifteenth　century　the　kings　once　more　became　strong

enough　to　exercise　those　powers　which　belonged　to　them　because

they　were　‘‘anointed　of　God。''　Then　the　feudal　knights　lost

their　former　independence。　Reduced　to　the　rank　of　country

squires；　they　no　longer　filled　a　need　and　soon　they　became　a

nuisance。　But　Europe　would　have　perished　without　the　‘‘feudal

system''　of　the　dark　ages。　There　were　many　bad　knights

as　there　are　many　bad　people　to…day。　But　generally　speaking；

the　rough…fisted　barons　of　the　twelfth　and　thirteenth　century

were　hard…working　administrators　who　rendered　a　most　useful

service　to　the　cause　of　progress。　During　that　era　the　noble

torch　of　learning　and　art　which　had　illuminated　the　world　of

the　Egyptians　and　the　Greeks　and　the　Romans　was　burning

very　low。　Without　the　knights　and　their　good　friends；　the

monks；　civilisation　would　have　been　extinguished　entirely；　and

the　human　race　would　have　been　forced　to　begin　once　more

where　the　cave…man　had　left　off。







CHIVALRY



CHIVALRY





IT　was　quite　natural　that　the　professional　fighting…men　of

the　Middle　Ages　should　try　to　establish　some　sort　of　organisation

for　their　mutual　benefit　and　protection。　Out　of　this　need

for　close　organisation；　Knighthood　or　Chivalry　was　born。



We　know　very　little　about　the　origins　of　Knighthood。　But

as　the　system　developed；　it　gave　the　world　something　which　it

needed　very　badlya　definite　rule　of　conduct　which　softened

the　barbarous　customs　of　that　day　and　made　life　more　livable

than　it　had　been　during　the　five　hundred　years　of　the　Dark

Ages。　It　was　not　an　easy　task　to　civilise　the　rough　frontiersmen

who　had　spent　most　of　their　time　fighting　Mohammedans

and　Huns　and　Norsemen。　Often　they　were　guilty　of　backsliding；

and　having　vowed　all　sorts　of　oaths　about　mercy　and

charity　in　the　morning；　they　would　murder　all　their　prisoners

before　evening。　But　progress　is　ever　the　result　of　slow　and

ceaseless　labour；　and　finally　the　most　unscrupulous　of　knights

was　forced　to　obey　the　rules　of　his　‘‘class''　or　suffer　the　consequences。



These　rules　were　different　in　the　various　parts　of　Europe；

but　they　all　made　much　of　‘‘service''　and　‘‘loyalty　to　duty。''　The

Middle　Ages　regarded　service　as　something　very　noble　and

beautiful。　It　was　no　disgrace　to　be　a　servant；　provided　you

were　a　good　servant　and　did　not　slacken　on　the　job。　As　for

loyalty；　at　a　time　when　life　depended　upon　the　faithful　per…

formance　of　many　unpleasant　duties；　it　was　the　chief　virtue

of　the　fighting　man。



A　young　knight　therefore　was　asked　to　swear　that　he　would

be　faithful　as　a　servant　to　God　and　as　a　servant　to　his　King。

Furthermore；　he　promised　to　be　generous　to　those　whose　need

was　greater　than　his　own。　He　pledged　his　word　that　he　would

be　humble　in　his　personal　behaviour　and　would　never　boast　of

his　own　accomplishments　and　that　he　would　be　a　friend　of　all

those　who　suffered；　（with　the　exception　of　the　Mohammedans；

whom　he　was　expected　to　kill　on　sight）。



Around　these　vows；　which　were　merely　the　Ten　Commandments

expressed　in　terms　which　the　people　of　the　Middle　Ages

could　understand；　there　developed　a　complicated　system　of

manners　and　outward　behaviour。　The　knights　tried　to　model

their　own　lives　after　the　example　of　those　heroes　of　Arthur's

Round　Table　and　Charlemagne's　court　of　whom　the　Troubadours

had　told　them　and　of　whom　you　may　read　in　many　delightful

books　which　are　enumerated　at　the　end　of　this　volume。

They　hoped　that　they　might　prove　as　brave　as　Lancelot　and

as　faithful　as　Roland。　They　carried　themselves　with　dignity

and　they　spoke　careful　and　gracious　words　that　they　might　be

known　as　True　Knights；　however　humble　the　cut　of　their　coat

or　the　size　of　their　purse。



In　this　way　the　order　of　Knighthood　became　a　school　of　those

good　manners　which　are　the　oil　of　the　social　machinery。　Chivalry

came　to　mean　courtesy　and　the　feudal　castle　showed　the

rest　of　the　world　what　clothes　to　wear；　how　to　eat；　how　to　ask

a　lady　for　a　dance　and　the　thousand　and　one　little　things　of

every…day　behaviour　which　help　to　make　life　interesting　and

agreeable。



Like　all　human　institutions；　Knighthood　was　doomed　to

perish　as　soon　as　it　had　outlived　its　usefulness。



The　crusades；　about　which　one　of　the　next　chapters　tells；

were　followed　by　a　great　revival　of　trade。　Cities　grew　overnight。

The　townspeople　became　rich；　hired　good　school　teachers

and　soon　were　the　equals　of　the　knights。　The　invention

of　gun…powder　deprived　the　heavily　armed　‘‘Chevalier''　of　his

former　advantage　and　the　use　of　mercenaries　made　it　impossible

to　conduct　a　battle　with　the　delicate　niceties　of　a　chess

tournament。　The　knight　became　superfluous。　Soon　he　became

a　ridiculous　figure；　with　his　devotion　to　ideals　that　had　no

longer　any　practical　value。　It　was　said　that　the　noble　Don

Quixote　de　la　Mancha　had　been　the　last　of　the　true　knights。

After　his　death；　his　trusted　sword　and　his　armour　were　sold

to　pay　his　debts。



But　somehow　or　other　that　sword　seems　to　have　fallen　into

the　hands　of　a　number　of　men。　Washington　carried　it　during

the　hopeless　days　of　Valley　Forge。　It　was　the　only　defence

of　Gordon；　when　he　had　refused　to　desert　the　people　who　had

been　entrusted　to　his　care；　and　stayed　to　meet　his　death　in　the

besieged　fortress　of　Khartoum。



And　I　am　not　quite　sure　but　that　it　proved　of　invaluable

strength　in　winning　the　Great　War。







POPE　vs。　EMPEROR



THE　STRANGE　DOUBLE　LOYALTY　OF　THE

PEOPLE　OF　THE　MIDDLE　AGES　AND　HOW

IT　LED　TO　ENDLESS　QUARRELS　BETWEEN

THE　POPES　AND　THE　HOLY　ROMAN　EMPERORS





IT　is　very　difficult　to　understand　the　people　of　by…gone

ages。　Your　own　grandfather；　whom　you　see　every　day；　is　a

mysterious　being　who　lives　in　a　different　world　of　ideas　and

clothes　and　manners。　I　am　now　telling　you　the　story　of　some

of　your　grandfathers　who　are　twenty…five　generations　removed；

and　I　do　not　expect　you　to　catch　the　meaning　of　what　I　write

without　re…reading　this　chapter　a　number　of　times。



The　average　man　of　the　Middle　Ages　lived　a　very　simple

and　uneventful　life。　Even　if　he　was　a　free　citizen；　able　to

come　and　go　at　will；　he　rarely　left　his　own　neighbourhood。

There　were　no　printed　books　and　only　a　few　manuscripts。

Here　and　there；　a　small　band　of　industrious　monks　taught

reading　and　writing　and　some　arithmetic。　But　science　and　history

and　geography　lay　buried　beneath　the　ruins　of　Greece　and

Rome。



Whatever　people　knew　about　the　past　they　had　learned　by

listening　to　stories　and　legends。　Such　information；　which　goes

from　father　to　son；　is　often　slightly　incorrect　in　details；　but

it　will　preserve　the　main　facts　of　history　with　astonishing

accuracy。　After　more　than　two　thousand　years；　the　mothers　of

India　still　frighten　their　naughty　children　by　telling　them　that

‘‘Iskander　will　get　them；''　and　Iskander　is　none　other　than

Alexander　the　Great；　who　visited　India　in　the　year　330　before

the　birth　of　Christ；　but　whose　story　has　lived　through　all　these

ages。



The　people　of　the　early　Middle　Ages　never　saw　a　textbook

of　Roman　history。　They　were　ignorant　of　many　things

which　every　school…boy　to…day　knows　before　he　has　entered

the　third　grade。　But　the　Roman　Empire；　which　is　merely　a

name　to　you；　was　to　them　something　very　much　alive。　They

felt　it。　They　willingly　recognised　the　Pope　as　their　spiritual

leader　because　he　lived　in　Rome　and　represented　the　idea　of

the　Roman　super…power。　And　they　were　profoundly　grateful

when　Charlemagne；　and　afterwards　Otto　the　Great；　revived

the　idea　of　a　world…empire　and　created　the　Holy　Roman

Empire；　that　the　world　might　again　be　as　it　always　had　been。



But　the　fact　that　there　were　two　different　heirs　to　the

Roman　tradition　pla