the story of mankind-第22章

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But　the　fact　that　there　were　two　different　heirs　to　the

Roman　tradition　placed　the　faithful　burghers　of　the　Middle

Ages　in　a　difficult　position。　The　theory　behind　the　mediaeval

political　system　was　both　sound　and　simple。　While　the　worldly

master　（the　emperor）　looked　after　the　physical　well…being　of

his　subjects；　the　spiritual　master　（the　Pope）　guarded　their

souls。



In　practice；　however；　the　system　worked　very　badly。　The

Emperor　invariably　tried　to　interfere　with　the　affairs　of　the

church　and　the　Pope　retaliated　and　told　the　Emperor　how

he　should　rule　his　domains。　Then　they　told　each　other　to　mind

their　own　business　in　very　unceremonious　language　and　the

inevitable　end　was　war。



Under　those　circumstances；　what　were　the　people　to　do；

A　good　Christian　obeyed　both　the　Pope　and　his　King。　But

the　Pope　and　the　Emperor　were　enemies。　Which　side　should

a　dutiful　subject　and　an　equally　dutiful　Christian　take？



It　was　never　easy　to　give　the　correct　answer。　When　the

Emperor　happened　to　be　a　man　of　energy　and　was　sufficiently

well　provided　with　money　to　organise　an　army；　he　was　very

apt　to　cross　the　Alps　and　march　on　Rome；　besiege　the　Pope

in　his　own　palace　if　need　be；　and　force　His　Holiness　to　obey

the　imperial　instructions　or　suffer　the　consequences。



But　more　frequently　the　Pope　was　the　stronger。　Then　the

Emperor　or　the　King　together　with　all　his　subjects　was

excommunicated。　This　meant　that　all　churches　were　closed；　that　no

one　could　be　baptised；　that　no　dying　man　could　be　given　absolution

in　short；　that　half　of　the　functions　of　mediaeval　government

came　to　an　end。



More　than　that；　the　people　were　absolved　from　their　oath　of

loyalty　to　their　sovereign　and　were　urged　to　rebel　against　their

master。　But　if　they　followed　this　advice　of　the　distant　Pope

and　were　caught；　they　were　hanged　by　their　near…by　Lege

Lord　and　that　too　was　very　unpleasant。



Indeed；　the　poor　fellows　were　in　a　difficult　position　and

none　fared　worse　than　those　who　lived　during　the　latter　half　of

the　eleventh　century；　when　the　Emperor　Henry　IV　of　Germany

and　Pope　Gregory　VII　fought　a　two…round　battle　which

decided　nothing　and　upset　the　peace　of　Europe　for　almost　fifty

years。



In　the　middle　of　the　eleventh　century　there　had　been　a

strong　movement　for　reform　in　the　church。　The　election　of　the

Popes；　thus　far；　had　been　a　most　irregular　affair。　It　was　to　the

advantage　of　the　Holy　Roman　Emperors　to　have　a　well…disposed

priest　elected　to　the　Holy　See。　They　frequently　came

to　Rome　at　the　time　of　election　and　used　their　influence　for

the　benefit　of　one　of　their　friends。



In　the　year　1059　this　had　been　changed。　By　a　decree　of

Pope　Nicholas　II　the　principal　priests　and　deacons　of　the

churches　in　and　around　Rome　were　organised　into　the　so…

called　College　of　Cardinals；　and　this　gathering　of　prominent

churchmen　（the　word　‘‘Cardinal''　meant　principal）　was　given

the　exclusive　power　of　electing　the　future　Popes。



In　the　year　1073　the　College　of　Cardinals　elected　a　priest

by　the　name　of　Hildebrand；　the　son　of　very　simple　parents　in

Tuscany；　as　Pope；　and　he　took　the　name　of　Gregory　VII。

His　energy　was　unbounded。　His　belief　in　the　supreme　powers

of　his　Holy　Office　was　built　upon　a　granite　rock　of　conviction

and　courage。　In　the　mind　of　Gregory；　the　Pope　was　not　only

the　absolute　head　of　the　Christian　church；　but　also　the　highest

Court　of　Appeal　in　all　worldly　matters。　The　Pope　who　had

elevated　simple　German　princes　to　the　dignity　of　Emperor

could　depose　them　at　will。　He　could　veto　any　law　passed　by

duke　or　king　or　emperor；　but　whosoever　should　question　a

papal　decree；　let　him　beware；　for　the　punishment　would　be

swift　and　merciless。



Gregory　sent　ambassadors　to　all　the　European　courts　to

inform　the　potentates　of　Europe　of　his　new　laws　and　asked

them　to　take　due　notice　of　their　contents。　William　the　Conqueror

promised　to　be　good；　but　Henry　IV；　who　since　the　age

of　six　had　been　fighting　with　his　subjects；　had　no　intention　of

submitting　to　the　Papal　will。　He　called　together　a　college　of

German　bishops；　accused　Gregory　of　every　crime　under　the

sun　and　then　had　him　deposed　by　the　council　of　Worms。



The　Pope　answered　with　excommunication　and　a　demand

that　the　German　princes　rid　themselves　of　their　unworthy　ruler。

The　German　princes；　only　too　happy　to　be　rid　of　Henry；　asked

the　Pope　to　come　to　Augsburg　and　help　them　elect　a　new　Emperor。



Gregory　left　Rome　and　travelled　northward。　Henry；

who　was　no　fool；　appreciated　the　danger　of　his　position。　At

all　costs　he　must　make　peace　with　the　Pope；　and　he　must　do

it　at　once。　In　the　midst　of　winter　he　crossed　the　Alps　and

hastened　to　Canossa　where　the　Pope　had　stopped　for　a　short

rest。　Three　long　days；　from　the　25th　to　the　28th　of　January

of　the　year　1077；　Henry；　dressed　as　a　penitent　pilgrim

（but　with　a　warm　sweater　underneath　his　monkish　garb）；

waited　outside　the　gates　of　the　castle　of　Canossa。

Then　he　was　allowed　to　enter　and　was　pardoned　for

his　sins。　But　the　repentance　did　not　last　long。

As　soon　as　Henry　had　returned　to　Germany；　he　behaved

exactly　as　before。　Again　he　was　excommunicated。　For　the

second　time　a　council　of　German　bishops　deposed　Gregory；

but　this　time；　when　Henry　crossed　the　Alps　he　was　at

the　head　of　a　large　army；　besieged　Rome　and　forced　Gregory

to　retire　to　Salerno；　where　he　died　in　exile。　This　first　violent

outbreak　decided　nothing。　As　soon　as　Henry　was　back　in

Germany；　the　struggle　between　Pope　and　Emperor　was　continued。



The　Hohenstaufen　family　which　got　hold　of　the　Imperial

German　Throne　shortly　afterwards；　were　even　more　independent

than　their　predecessors。　Gregory　had　claimed　that　the

Popes　were　superior　to　all　kings　because　they　（the　Popes）　at

the　Day　of　Judgement　would　be　responsible　for　the　behaviour

of　all　the　sheep　of　their　flock；　and　in　the　eyes　of　God；　a　king

was　one　of　that　faithful　herd。



Frederick　of　Hohenstaufen；　commonly　known　as　Barbarossa

or　Red　Beard；　set　up　the　counter…claim　that　the　Empire

had　been　bestowed　upon　his　predecessor　‘‘by　God　himself''

and　as　the　Empire　included　Italy　and　Rome；　he　began　a　campaign

which　was　to　add　these　‘‘lost　provinces''　to　the　northern

country。　Barbarossa　was　accidentally　drowned　in　Asia　Minor

during　the　second　Crusade；　but　his　son　Frederick　II；　a　brilliant

young　man　who　in　his　youth　had　been　exposed　to　the　civilisation

of　the　Mohammedans　of　Sicily；　continued　the　war。　The

Popes　accused　him　of　heresy。　It　is　true　that　Frederick　seems

to　have　felt　a　deep　and　serious　contempt　for　the　rough　Christian

world　of　the　North；　for　the　boorish　German　Knights　and

the　intriguing　Italian　priests。　But　he　held　his　tongue；　went

on　a　Crusade　and　took　Jerusalem　from　the　infidel　and　was

duly　crowned　as　King　of　the　Holy　City。　Even　this　act　did　not

placate　the　Popes。　They　deposed　Frederick　and　gave　his

Italian　possessions　to　Charles　of　Anjou；　the　brother　of　that

King　Louis　of　France　who　became　famous　as　Saint　Louis。

This　led　to　more　warfare。　Conrad　V；　the　son　of　Conrad　IV；

and　the　last　of　the　Hohenstaufens；　tried　to　regain　the　kingdom；

and　was　defeated　and　decapitated　at　Naples。　But　twenty　years

later；　the　French　who　had　made　themselves　thoroughly　unpopular

in　Sicily　were　all　murdered　during　the　so…called　Sicilian

Vespers；　and　so　it　went。



The　quarrel　between　the　Popes　and　the　Emperors　was

never　settled；　but　after　a　while　the　two　enemies　learned　to

leave　each　other　alone。



In　the　year　1278；　Rudolph　of　Hapsburg　was　elected　Emperor。

He　did　not　take　the　trouble　to　go　to　Rome　to　be

crowned。　The　Popes　did　not　object　and　in　turn　they　kept

away　from　Germany。　This　meant　peace　but　two　entire　centuries

which　might　have　been　used　for　the　purpose　of　internal

organisation　had　been　wasted　in　useless　warfare。



It　is　an　ill　wind　however　that　bloweth　no　good　to　some　one。

The　little　cities　of　Italy；　by　a　process　of　careful　balancing；

had　managed　to　increase　their　power　and　their　independence

at　the　expense　of　both　Emperors　and　Popes。　When　the　rush

for　the　Holy　Land　began；　they　were　able　to　handle　the　transportation

problem　of　the　thousands　of　eager　pilgrims　who　were

clamoring　for　passage；　and　at　the　end　of　the　Crusades　they

had　built　themselves　such　strong　defences　of　brick　and　of　gold

that　they　could　defy　Pope　and　Emperor　with　equal　indifference。



Church　and　State　fought　each　other　and　a　third　partythe

mediaeval　cityran　away　with　the　spoils。







THE　CRUSADES



BUT　ALL　THESE　DIFFERENT　QUARRELS

WERE　FORGOTTEN　WHEN　THE　TURKS

TOOK　THE　HOLY　LAND；　DESECRATED　THE

HOLY　PLACES　AND　INTERFERED　SERIOUSLY

WITH　THE　TRADE　FROM　EAST　TO

WEST。　EUROPE　WENT　CRUSADING





DURING　three　centuries　there　had　been　peace　between　Christians

and　Moslems　except　in　Spain　and　in　the　eastern　Roman

Empire；　the　two　states　defending　the　gateways　of　Europe。

The　Mohammedans　having　conquered　Syria　in　the　seventh

century　were　in　possession　of　the　Holy　Land。　But　they　regarded

Jesus　as　a　great　prophet　（though　not　quite　as　great

as　Mohammed）；　and　they　did　not　interfere　with　the　pilgrims

who　wished　to　pray　in　the　church　which　Saint　Helena；　the

mother　of　the　Emperor　Constantine；　had　built　on　the　spot　of

the　Holy　Grave。　But　early　in　the　eleventh　century；　a　Tartar

tribe　from　the　wilds　of　Asia；　called　the　Seljuks　or　Turks；

became　masters　of　the　Mohammedan　state　in　western　Asia　and

then　the　period　of　tolerance　came　to　an　end。　The　Turks　took

all　of　Asia　Minor　away　from　the　eastern　Roman　Emperors

and　they　made　an　end　to　the　trade　between　east　and　west。



Alexis；　the　Emperor；　who　rarely　saw　anything　of　his　Christian

neighbours　of　the　west；　appealed　for　help　and　pointed　to

the　danger　which　threatened　Europe　should　the　Turks　take

Constantinople。



The　Italian　cities　which　had　established　colonies　along　the

coast　of　Asia　Minor　and　Palestine；　in　fear　for　their　possessions；

reported　terrible　stories　of　Turkish　atrocities　and　Christian

suffering。　All　Europe　got　excited。



Pope　Urban　II；　a　Frenchman　from　Reims；　who　had　been

educated　at　the　same　famous　cloister　of　Cluny　which　had

trained　Gregory　VII；　thought　that　the　time　had　come　for

action。　The　general　state　of　Europe　was　far　from　satisfactory。

The　primitive　agricultural　methods　of　that　day　（unchanged

since　Roman　times）　caused　a　constant　scarcity　of　food。　There

was　unemployment　and　hunger　and　these　are　apt　to　lead　to

discontent　and　riots。　Western　Asia　in　older　days　had　fed　millions。

It　was　an　excellent　field　for　the　purpose　of　immigration。



Therefore　at　the　council　of　Clermont　in　France　in　the　year

1095　the　Pope　arose；　described　the　terrible　horrors　which　the

infidels　had　inflicted　upon　the　Holy　Land；　gave　a　glowing

description　of　this　country　which　ever　since　the　days　of　Moses

had　been　overflowing　with　milk　and　honey；　and　exhorted　the

knights　of　France　and　the　people　of　Europe　in　general　to

leave　wife　an