the story of mankind-第26章

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！



them　but　unless　we　are　very　careful；　they　will　play　tricks

with　us。　They　are　apt　to　make　history　too　precise。　For　example；

when　I　talk　of　the　point…of…view　of　mediaeval　man；　I

do　not　mean　that　on　the　31st　of　December　of　the　year　476；

suddenly　all　the　people　of　Europe　said；　‘‘Ah；　now　the　Roman

Empire　has　come　to　an　end　and　we　are　living　in　the　Middle

Ages。　How　interesting！''



You　could　have　found　men　at　the　Frankish　court　of　Charlemagne

who　were　Romans　in　their　habits；　in　their　manners；　in

their　out…look　upon　life。　On　the　other　hand；　when　you　grow

up　you　will　discover　that　some　of　the　people　in　this　world　have

never　passed　beyond　the　stage　of　the　cave…man。　All　times

and　all　ages　overlap；　and　the　ideas　of　succeeding　generations

play　tag　with　each　other。　But　it　is　possible　to　study　the　minds

of　a　good　many　true　representatives　of　the　Middle　Ages　and

then　give　you　an　idea　of　the　average　man's　attitude　toward

life　and　the　many　difficult　problems　of　living。



First　of　all；　remember　that　the　people　of　the　Middle　Ages

never　thought　of　themselves　as　free…born　citizens；　who　could

come　and　go　at　will　and　shape　their　fate　according　to　their

ability　or　energy　or　luck。　On　the　contrary；　they　all　considered

themselves　part　of　the　general　scheme　of　things；　which　included

emperors　and　serfs；　popes　and　heretics；　heroes　and　swashbucklers；

rich　men；　poor　men；　beggar　men　and　thieves。　They　accepted

this　divine　ordinance　and　asked　no　questions。　In　this；

of　course；　they　differed　radically　from　modern　people　who　accept

nothing　and　who　are　forever　trying　to　improve　their　own

financial　and　political　situation。



To　the　man　and　woman　of　the　thirteenth　century；　the　world

hereaftera　Heaven　of　wonderful　delights　and　a　Hell　of　brimstone

and　sufferingmeant　something　more　than　empty　words

or　vague　theological　phrases。　It　was　an　actual　fact　and　the

mediaeval　burghers　and　knights　spent　the　greater　part　of　their

time　preparing　for　it。　We　modern　people　regard　a　noble

death　after　a　well…spent　life　with　the　quiet　calm　of　the　ancient

Greeks　and　Romans。　After　three　score　years　of　work　and　effort；

we　go　to　sleep　with　the　feeling　that　all　will　be　well。



But　during　the　Middle　Ages；　the　King　of　Terrors　with

his　grinning　skull　and　his　rattling　bones　was　man's　steady

companion。　He　woke　his　victims　up　with　terrible　tunes　on　his

scratchy　fiddle　he　sat　down　with　them　at　dinnerhe　smiled

at　them　from　behind　trees　and　shrubs　when　they　took　a　girl

out　for　a　walk。　If　you　had　heard　nothing　but　hair…raising

yarns　about　cemeteries　and　coffins　and　fearful　diseases　when

you　were　very　young；　instead　of　listening　to　the　fairy　stories

of　Anderson　and　Grimm；　you；　too；　would　have　lived　all　your

days　in　a　dread　of　the　final　hour　and　the　gruesome　day　of

Judgment。　That　is　exactly　what　happened　to　the　children　of

the　Middle　Ages。　They　moved　in　a　world　of　devils　and　spooks

and　only　a　few　occasional　angels。　Sometimes；　their　fear　of

the　future　filled　their　souls　with　humility　and　piety；　but　often

it　influenced　them　the　other　way　and　made　them　cruel　and

sentimental。　They　would　first　of　all　murder　all　the　women

and　children　of　a　captured　city　and　then　they　would　devoutly

march　to　a　holy　spot　and　with　their　hands　gory　with　the　blood

of　innocent　victims；　they　would　pray　that　a　merciful　heaven　forgive

them　their　sins。　Yea；　they　would　do　more　than　pray；　they

would　weep　bitter　tears　and　would　confess　themselves　the　most

wicked　of　sinners。　But　the　next　day；　they　would　once　more

butcher　a　camp　of　Saracen　enemies　without　a　spark　of　mercy

in　their　hearts。



Of　course；　the　Crusaders　were　Knights　and　obeyed　a　somewhat

different　code　of　manners　from　the　common　men。　But　in

such　respects　the　common　man　was　just　the　same　as　his　master。

He；　too；　resembled　a　shy　horse；　easily　frightened　by　a

shadow　or　a　silly　piece　of　paper；　capable　of　excellent　and　faithful

service　but　liable　to　run　away　and　do　terrible　damage　when

his　feverish　imagination　saw　a　ghost。



In　judging　these　good　people；　however；　it　is　wise　to　remember

the　terrible　disadvantages　under　which　they　lived。

They　were　really　barbarians　who　posed　as　civilised　people。

Charlemagne　and　Otto　the　Great　were　called　‘‘Roman　Emperors；''

but　they　had　as　little　resemblance　to　a　real　Roman　Emperor

（say　Augustus　or　Marcus　Aurelius）　as　‘‘King''　Wumba

Wumba　of　the　upper　Congo　has　to　the　highly　educated　rulers

of　Sweden　or　Denmark。　They　were　savages　who　lived　amidst

glorious　ruins　but　who　did　not　share　the　benefits　of　the

civilisation　which　their　fathers　and　grandfathers　had　destroyed。

They　knew　nothing。　They　were　ignorant　of　almost　every　fact

which　a　boy　of　twelve　knows　to…day。　They　were　obliged　to　go

to　one　single　book　for　all　their　information。　That　was　the

Bible。　But　those　parts　of　the　Bible　which　have　influenced　the

history　of　the　human　race　for　the　better　are　those　chapters　of

the　New　Testament　which　teach　us　the　great　moral　lessons　of

love；　charity　and　forgiveness。　As　a　handbook　of　astronomy；

zoology；　botany；　geometry　and　all　the　other　sciences；　the　venerable

book　is　not　entirely　reliable。　In　the　twelfth　century；　a

second　book　was　added　to　the　mediaeval　library；　the　great

encyclopaedia　of　useful　knowledge；　compiled　by　Aristotle；　the

Greek　philosopher　of　the　fourth　century　before　Christ。　Why

the　Christian　church　should　have　been　willing　to　accord　such

high　honors　to　the　teacher　of　Alexander　the　Great；　whereas

they　condemned　all　other　Greek　philosophers　on　account　of

their　heathenish　doctrines；　I　really　do　not　know。　But　next　to

the　Bible；　Aristotle　was　recognized　as　the　only　reliable　teacher

whose　works　could　be　safely　placed　into　the　hands　of　true

Christians。



His　works　had　reached　Europe　in　a　somewhat　roundabout

way。　They　had　gone　from　Greece　to　Alexandria。　They　had

then　been　translated　from　the　Greek　into　the　Arabic　language

by　the　Mohammedans　who　conquered　Egypt　in　the　seventh

century。　They　had　followed　the　Moslem　armies　into　Spain　and

the　philosophy　of　the　great　Stagirite　（Aristotle　was　a　native　of

Stagira　in　Macedonia）　was　taught　in　the　Moorish　universities

of　Cordova。　The　Arabic　text　was　then　translated　into　Latin

by　the　Christian　students　who　had　crossed　the　Pyrenees　to　get

a　liberal　education　and　this　much　travelled　version　of　the　famous

books　was　at　last　taught　at　the　different　schools　of　northwestern

Europe。　It　was　not　very　clear；　but　that　made　it　all

the　more　interesting。



With　the　help　of　the　Bible　and　Aristotle；　the　most　brilliant

men　of　the　Middle　Ages　now　set　to　work　to　explain　all　things

between　Heaven　and　Earth　in　their　relation　to　the　expressed

will　of　God。　These　brilliant　men；　the　so…called　Scholasts　or

Schoolmen；　were　really　very　intelligent；　but　they　had　obtained

their　information　exclusively　from　books；　and　never　from　actual

observation。　If　they　wanted　to　lecture　on　the　sturgeon

or　on　caterpillars；　they　read　the　Old　and　New　Testaments　and

Aristotle；　and　told　their　students　everything　these　good　books

had　to　say　upon　the　subject　of　caterpillars　and　sturgeons。

They　did　not　go　out　to　the　nearest　river　to　catch　a　sturgeon。

They　did　not　leave　their　libraries　and　repair　to　the　backyard

to　catch　a　few　caterpillars　and　look　at　these　animals　and　study

them　in　their　native　haunts。　Even　such　famous　scholars　as

Albertus　Magnus　and　Thomas　Aquinas　did　not　inquire　whether

the　sturgeons　in　the　land　of　Palestine　and　the　caterpillars　of

Macedonia　might　not　have　been　different　from　the　sturgeons

and　the　caterpillars　of　western　Europe。



When　occasionally　an　exceptionally　curious　person　like

Roger　Bacon　appeared　in　the　council　of　the　learned　and　began

to　experiment　with　magnifying　glasses　and　funny　little　telescopes

and　actually　dragged　the　sturgen　and　the　caterpillar

into　the　lecturing　room　and　proved　that　they　were　different

from　the　creatures　described　by　the　Old　Testament　and　by

Aristotle；　the　Schoolmen　shook　their　dignified　heads。　Bacon

was　going　too　far。　When　he　dared　to　suggest　that　an　hour

of　actual　observation　was　worth　more　than　ten　years　with

Aristotle　and　that　the　works　of　that　famous　Greek　might　as

well　have　remained　untranslated　for　all　the　good　they　had　ever

done；　the　scholasts　went　to　the　police　and　said；　‘‘This　man　is

a　danger　to　the　safety　of　the　state。　He　wants　us　to　study

Greek　that　we　may　read　Aristotle　in　the　original。　Why　should

he　not　be　contented　with　our　Latin…Arabic　translation　which

has　satisfied　our　faithful　people　for　so　many　hundred　years？

Why　is　he　so　curious　about　the　insides　of　fishes　and　the　insides

of　insects？　He　is　probably　a　wicked　magician　trying　to　upset

the　established　order　of　things　by　his　Black　Magic。''　And　so

well　did　they　plead　their　cause　that　the　frightened　guardians

of　the　peace　forbade　Bacon　to　write　a　single　word　for　more

than　ten　years。　When　he　resumed　his　studies　he　had　learned

a　lesson。　He　wrote　his　books　in　a　queer　cipher　which　made　it

impossible　for　his　contemporaries　to　read　them；　a　trick　which

became　common　as　the　Church　became　more　desperate　in　its

attempts　to　prevent　people　from　asking　questions　which　would

lead　to　doubts　and　infidelity。



This；　however；　was　not　done　out　of　any　wicked　desire　to

keep　people　ignorant。　The　feeling　which　prompted　the　heretic

hunters　of　that　day　was　really　a　very　kindly　one。　They　firmly

believednay；　they　knewthat　this　life　was　but　the　preparation

for　our　real　existence　in　the　next　world。　They　felt　convinced

that　too　much　knowledge　made　people　uncomfortable；

filled　their　minds　with　dangerous　opinions　and　led　to　doubt

and　hence　to　perdition。　A　mediaeval　Schoolman　who　saw　one

of　his　pupils　stray　away　from　the　revealed　authority　of　the

Bible　and　Aristotle；　that　he　might　study　things　for　himself；　felt

as　uncomfortable　as　a　loving　mother　who　sees　her　young　child

approach　a　hot　stove。　She　knows　that　he　will　burn　his　little

fingers　if　he　is　allowed　to　touch　it　and　she　tries　to　keep　him

back；　if　necessary　she　will　use　force。　But　she　really　loves

the　child　and　if　he　will　only　obey　her；　she　will　be　as　good　to　him

as　she　possibly　can　be。　In　the　same　way　the　mediaeval　guardians

of　people's　souls；　while　they　were　strict　in　all　matters

pertaining　to　the　Faith；　slaved　day　and　night　to　render　the

greatest　possible　service　to　the　members　of　their　flock。　They

held　out　a　helping　hand　whenever　they　could　and　the　society

of　that　day　shows　the　influence　of　thousands　of　good　men　and

pious　women　who　tried　to　make　the　fate　of　the　average　mortal

as　bearable　as　possible。



A　serf　was　a　serf　and　his　position　would　never　change。　But

the　Good　Lord　of　the　Middle　Ages　who　allowed　the　serf　to

remain　a　slave　all　his　life　had　bestowed　an　immortal　soul　upon

this　humble　creature　and　therefore　he　must　be　protected　in　his

rights；　that　he　might　live　and　die　as　a　good　Christian。　When

he　grew　too　old　or　too　weak　to　work　he　must　be　taken　care

of　by　the　feudal　master　for　whom