the story of mankind-第28章

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were　then　used　to　carry　the　wheat　of　northern　and　central　Russia

to　southern　and　western　Europe。　On　the　return　voyage

they　brought　spices　and　silks　and　carpets　and　Oriental　rugs

from　Venice　and　Genoa　to　Bruges　and　Hamburg　and　Bremen。



Out　of　such　simple　beginnings　there　developed　an　important

system　of　international　trade　which　reached　from　the

manufacturing　cities　of　Bruges　and　Ghent　（where　the　almighty

guilds　fought　pitched　battles　with　the　kings　of　France　and

England　and　established　a　labour　tyranny　which　completely

ruined　both　the　employers　and　the　workmen）　to　the　Republic

of　Novgorod　in　northern　Russia；　which　was　a　mighty　city　until

Tsar　Ivan；　who　distrusted　all　merchants；　took　the　town　and

killed　sixty　thousand　people　in　less　than　a　month's　time　and

reduced　the　survivors　to　beggary。



That　they　might　protect　themselves　against　pirates　and

excessive　tolls　and　annoying　legislation；　the　merchants　of　the

north　founded　a　protective　league　which　was　called　the

‘‘Hansa。''　The　Hansa；　which　had　its　headquarters　in　Lubeck；

was　a　voluntary　association　of　more　than　one　hundred　cities。

The　association　maintained　a　navy　of　its　own　which　patrolled

the　seas　and　fought　and　defeated　the　Kings　of　England　and

Denmark　when　they　dared　to　interfere　with　the　rights　and　the

privileges　of　the　mighty　Hanseatic　merchants。



I　wish　that　I　had　more　space　to　tell　you　some　of　the　wonderful

stories　of　this　strange　commerce　which　was　carried　on

across　the　high　mountains　and　across　the　deep　seas　amidst

such　dangers　that　every　voyage　became　a　glorious　adventure。

But　it　would　take　several　volumes　and　it　cannot　be　done　here。



Besides；　I　hope　that　I　have　told　you　enough　about　the　Middle

Ages　to　make　you　curious　to　read　more　in　the　excellent　books

of　which　I　shall　give　you　a　list　at　the　end　of　this　volume。



The　Middle　Ages；　as　I　have　tried　to　show　you；　had　been　a

period　of　very　slow　progress。　The　people　who　were　in　power

believed　that　‘‘progress''　was　a　very　undesirable　invention　of

the　Evil　One　and　ought　to　be　discouraged；　and　as　they　hap…

pened　to　occupy　the　seats　of　the　mighty；　it　was　easy　to　enforce

their　will　upon　the　patient　serfs　and　the　illiterate　knights。

Here　and　there　a　few　brave　souls　sometimes　ventured　forth　into

the　forbidden　region　of　science；　but　they　fared　badly　and　were

considered　lucky　when　they　escaped　with　their　lives　and　a　jail

sentence　of　twenty　years。



In　the　twelfth　and　thirteenth　centuries　the　flood　of

international　commerce　swept　over　western　Europe　as　the　Nile

had　swept　across　the　valley　of　ancient　Egypt。　It　left　behind

a　fertile　sediment　of　prosperity。　Prosperity　meant　leisure

hours　and　these　leisure　hours　gave　both　men　and　women　a

chance　to　buy　manuscripts　and　take　an　interest　in　literature

and　art　and　music。



Then　once　more　was　the　world　filled　with　that　divine　curiosity

which　has　elevated　man　from　the　ranks　of　those　other

mammals　who　are　his　distant　cousins　but　who　have　remained

dumb；　and　the　cities；　of　whose　growth　and　development　I　have

told　you　in　my　last　chapter；　offered　a　safe　shelter　to　these

brave　pioneers　who　dared　to　leave　the　very　narrow　domain

of　the　established　order　of　things。



They　set　to　work。　They　opened　the　windows　of　their

cloistered　and　studious　cells。　A　flood　of　sunlight　entered　the

dusty　rooms　and　showed　them　the　cobwebs　which　had　gathered

during　the　long　period　of　semi…darkness。



They　began　to　clean　house。　Next　they　cleaned　their　gardens。



Then　they　went　out　into　the　open　fields；　outside　the　crumbling

town　walls；　and　said；　‘‘This　is　a　good　world。　We　are

glad　that　we　live　in　it。''



At　that　moment；　the　Middle　Ages　came　to　an　end　and　a　new

world　began。







THE　RENAISSANCE



PEOPLE　ONCE　MORE　DARED　TO　BE　HAPPY

JUST　BECAUSE　THEY　WERE　ALIVE。　THEY

TRIED　TO　SAVE　THE　REMAINS　OF　THE

OLDER　AND　MORE　AGREEABLE　CIVILISATION

OF　ROME　AND　GREECE　AND　THEY

WERE　SO　PROUD　OF　THEIR　ACHIEVEMENTS

THAT　THEY　SPOKE　OF　A　RENAISSANCE

OR　RE…BIRTH　OF　CIVILISATION





THE　Renaissance　was　not　a　political　or　religious　movement。

It　was　a　state　of　mind。



The　men　of　the　Renaissance　continued　to　be　the　obedient

sons　of　the　mother　church。　They　were　subjects　of　kings　and

emperors　and　dukes　and　murmured　not。



But　their　outlook　upon　life　was　changed。　They　began　to

wear　different　clothesto　speak　a　different　languageto　live

different　lives　in　different　houses。



They　no　longer　concentrated　all　their　thoughts　and　their

efforts　upon　the　blessed　existence　that　awaited　them　in　Heaven。

They　tried　to　establish　their　Paradise　upon　this　planet；　and；

truth　to　tell；　they　succeeded　in　a　remarkable　degree。



I　have　quite　often　warned　you　against　the　danger　that

lies　in　historical　dates。　People　take　them　too　literally。　They

think　of　the　Middle　Ages　as　a　period　of　darkness　and　ignor…

ance。　‘‘Click；''　says　the　clock；　and　the　Renaissance　begins　and

cities　and　palaces　are　flooded　with　the　bright　sunlight　of　an

eager　intellectual　curiosity。



As　a　matter　of　fact；　it　is　quite　impossible　to　draw　such

sharp　lines。　The　thirteenth　century　belonged　most　decidedly

to　the　Middle　Ages。　All　historians　agree　upon　that。　But　was

it　a　time　of　darkness　and　stagnation　merely？　By　no　means。

People　were　tremendously　alive。　Great　states　were　being

founded。　Large　centres　of　commerce　were　being　developed。

High　above　the　turretted　towers　of　the　castle　and　the　peaked

roof　of　the　town…hall；　rose　the　slender　spire　of　the　newly　built

Gothic　cathedral。　Everywhere　the　world　was　in　motion。　The

high　and　mighty　gentlemen　of　the　city…hall；　who　had　just　become

conscious　of　their　own　strength　（by　way　of　their　recently

acquired　riches）　were　struggling　for　more　power　with　their

feudal　masters。　The　members　of　the　guilds　who　had　just　become

aware　of　the　important　fact　that　‘‘numbers　count''　were

fighting　the　high　and　mighty　gentlemen　of　the　city…hall。　The

king　and　his　shrewd　advisers　went　fishing　in　these　troubled

waters　and　caught　many　a　shining　bass　of　profit　which　they

proceeded　to　cook　and　eat　before　the　noses　of　the　surprised　and

disappointed　councillors　and　guild　brethren。



To　enliven　the　scenery　during　the　long　hours　of　evening

when　the　badly　lighted　streets　did　not　invite　further　political

and　economic　dispute；　the　Troubadours　and　Minnesingers　told

their　stories　and　sang　their　songs　of　romance　and　adventure

and　heroism　and　loyalty　to　all　fair　women。　Meanwhile　youth；

impatient　of　the　slowness　of　progress；　flocked　to　the　universities；

and　thereby　hangs　a　story。



The　Middle　Ages　were　‘‘internationally　minded。''　That

sounds　difficult；　but　wait　until　I　explain　it　to　you。　We　modern

people　are　‘‘nationally　minded。''　We　are　Americans　or　Englishmen

or　Frenchmen　or　Italians　and　speak　English　or　French

or　Italian　and　go　to　English　and　French　and　Italian　universities；

unless　we　want　to　specialise　in　some　particular　branch

of　learning　which　is　only　taught　elsewhere；　and　then　we　learn

another　language　and　go　to　Munich　or　Madrid　or　Moscow。

But　the　people　of　the　thirteenth　or　fourteenth　century　rarely

talked　of　themselves　as　Englishmen　or　Frenchmen　or　Italians。

They　said；　‘‘I　am　a　citizen　of　Sheffield　or　Bordeaux　or　Genoa。''

Because　they　all　belonged　to　one　and　the　same　church　they　felt

a　certain　bond　of　brotherhood。　And　as　all　educated　men　could

speak　Latin；　they　possessed　an　international　language　which

removed　the　stupid　language　barriers　which　have　grown　up

in　modern　Europe　and　which　place　the　small　nations　at　such

an　enormous　disadvantage。　Just　as　an　example；　take　the　case

of　Erasmus；　the　great　preacher　of　tolerance　and　laughter；　who

wrote　his　books　in　the　sixteenth　century。　He　was　the　native

of　a　small　Dutch　village。　He　wrote　in　Latin　and　all　the　world

was　his　audience。　If　he　were　alive　to…day；　he　would　write　in

Dutch。　Then　only　five　or　six　million　people　would　be　able　to

read　him。　To　be　understood　by　the　rest　of　Europe　and　America；

his　publishers　would　be　obliged　to　translate　his　books　into

twenty　different　languages。　That　would　cost　a　lot　of　money

and　most　likely　the　publishers　would　never　take　the　trouble

or　the　risk。



Six　hundred　years　ago　that　could　not　happen。　The　greater

part　of　the　people　were　still　very　ignorant　and　could　not　read

or　write　at　all。　But　those　who　had　mastered　the　difficult　art

of　handling　the　goose…quill　belonged　to　an　international　republic

of　letters　which　spread　across　the　entire　continent　and　which

knew　of　no　boundaries　and　respected　no　limitations　of　language

or　nationality。　The　universities　were　the　strongholds　of

this　republic。　Unlike　modern　fortifications；　they　did　not　follow

the　frontier。　They　were　to　be　found　wherever　a　teacher

and　a　few　pupils　happened　to　find　themselves　together。　There

again　the　Middle　Ages　and　the　Renaissance　differed　from　our

own　time。　Nowadays；　when　a　new　university　is　built；　the

process　（almost　invariably）　is　as　follows：　Some　rich　man

wants　to　do　something　for　the　community　in　which　he　lives　or

a　particular　religious　sect　wants　to　build　a　school　to　keep　its

faithful　children　under　decent　supervision；　or　a　state　needs　doc…

tors　and　lawyers　and　teachers。　The　university　begins　as　a

large　sum　of　money　which　is　deposited　in　a　bank。　This　money

is　then　used　to　construct　buildings　and　laboratories　and　dormitories。

Finally　professional　teachers　are　hired；　entrance　examinations

are　held　and　the　university　is　on　the　way。



But　in　the　Middle　Ages　things　were　done　differently。　A　wise　man

said　to　himself；　‘‘I　have　discovered　a　great　truth。　I　must　impart　my

knowledge　to　others。''　And　he　began　to　preach　his　wisdom

wherever　and　whenever　he　could　get　a　few　people　to　listen　to　him；

like　a　modern　soap…box　orator。　If　he　was　an　interesting　speaker；　the

crowd　came　and　stayed。　If　he　was　dull；　they　shrugged　their　shoulders

and　continued　their　way。



By　and　by　certain　young　men　began　to　come　regularly　to　hear

the　words　of　wisdom　of　this　great　teacher。　They　brought　copybooks

with　them　and　a　little　bottle　of　ink　and　a　goose　quill　and

wrote　down　what　seemed　to　be　important。　One　day　it　rained。

The　teacher　and　his　pupils　retired　to　an　empty　basement　or

the　room　of　the　‘‘Professor。''　The　learned　man　sat　in　his　chair

and　the　boys　sat　on　the　floor。　That　was　the　beginning　of　the

University；　the　‘‘universitas；''　a　corporation　of　professors　and

students　during　the　Middle　Ages；　when　the　‘‘teacher''　counted

for　everything　and　the　building　in　which　he　taught　counted　for

very　little。



As　an　example；　let　me　tell　you　of　something　that　happened

in　the　ninth　century。　In　the　town　of　Salerno　near　Naples　there

were　a　number　of　excellent　physicians。　They　attracted　people

desirous　of　learning　the　medical　profession　and　for　almost　a

thousand　years　（until　1817）　there　was　a　university　of　Salerno

which　taught　the　wisdom　of　Hippocrates；　the　great　Greek　doctor

who　had　practiced　his　art　in　ancien