the story of mankind-第31章

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Macchiavelli；　then　he　‘‘expressed''　himself　in　his　books　which

revealed　his　own　idea　of　a　successful　state　and　an　efficient

ruler。　If　on　the　other　hand　he　had　a　liking　for　painting；　he

‘‘expressed''　his　love　for　beautiful　lines　and　lovely　colours　in

the　pictures　which　have　made　the　names　of　Giotto；　Fra　Angelico；

Rafael　and　a　thousand　others　household　words　wherever

people　have　learned　to　care　for　those　things　which　express

a　true　and　lasting　beauty。



If　this　love　for　colour　and　line　happened　to　be　combined　with

an　interest　in　mechanics　and　hydraulics；　the　result　was　a　Leonardo

da　Vinci；　who　painted　his　pictures；　experimented　with

his　balloons　and　flying　machines；　drained　the　marshes　of　the

Lombardian　plains　and　‘‘expressed''　his　joy　and　interest　in　all

things　between　Heaven　and　Earth　in　prose；　in　painting；　in

sculpture　and　in　curiously　conceived　engines。　When　a　man　of

gigantic　strength；　like　Michael　Angelo；　found　the　brush　and

the　palette　too　soft　for　his　strong　hands；　he　turned　to　sculpture

and　to　architecture；　and　hacked　the　most　terrific　creatures　out

of　heavy　blocks　of　marble　and　drew　the　plans　for　the　church

of　St。　Peter；　the　most　concrete　‘‘expression''　of　the　glories

of　the　triumphant　church。　And　so　it　went。



All　Italy　（and　very　soon　all　of　Europe）　was　filled　with

men　and　women　who　lived　that　they　might　add　their　mite　to

the　sum　total　of　our　accumulated　treasures　of　knowledge　and

beauty　and　wisdom。　In　Germany；　in　the　city　of　Mainz；　Johann

zum　Gansefleisch；　commonly　known　as　Johann　Gutenberg；　had

just　invented　a　new　method　of　copying　books。　He　had　studied

the　old　woodcuts　and　had　perfected　a　system　by　which　individual

letters　of　soft　lead　could　be　placed　in　such　a　way　that

they　formed　words　and　whole　pages。　It　is　true；　he　soon　lost

all　his　money　in　a　law…suit　which　had　to　do　with　the　original

invention　of　the　press。　He　died　in　poverty；　but　the　‘‘expression''

of　his　particular　inventive　genius　lived　after　him。



Soon　Aldus　in　Venice　and　Etienne　in　Paris　and　Plantin　in

Antwerp　and　Froben　in　Basel　were　flooding　the　world　with

carefully　edited　editions　of　the　classics　printed　in　the　Gothic

letters　of　the　Gutenberg　Bible；　or　printed　in　the　Italian　type

which　we　use　in　this　book；　or　printed　in　Greek　letters；　or　in

Hebrew。



Then　the　whole　world　became　the　eager　audience　of　those

who　had　something　to　say。　The　day　when　learning　had　been

a　monopoly　of　a　privileged　few　came　to　an　end。　And　the

last　excuse　for　ignorance　was　removed　from　this　world；　when

Elzevier　of　Haarlem　began　to　print　his　cheap　and　popular

editions。　Then　Aristotle　and　Plato；　Virgil　and　Horace　and

Pliny；　all　the　goodly　company　of　the　ancient　authors　and

philosophers　and　scientists；　offered　to　become　man's　faithful

friend　in　exchange　for　a　few　paltry　pennies。　Humanism　had

made　all　men　free　and　equal　before　the　printed　word。







THE　GREAT　DISCOVERIES



BUT　NOW　THAT　PEOPLE　HAD　BROKEN

THROUGH　THE　BONDS　OF　THEIR　NARROW

MEDIAEVAL　LIMITATIONS；　THEY　HAD　TO

HAVE　MORE　ROOM　FOR　THEIR　WANDERINGS。

THE　EUROPEAN　WORLD　HAD

GROWN　TOO　SMALL　FOR　THEIR　AMBITIONS。

IT　WAS　THE　TIME　OF　THE　GREAT

VOYAGES　OF　DISCOVERY





THE　Crusades　had　been　a　lesson　in　the　liberal　art　of　travelling。

But　very　few　people　had　ever　ventured　beyond　the　well…

known　beaten　track　which　led　from　Venice　to　Jaffe。　In　the

thirteenth　century　the　Polo　brothers；　merchants　of　Venice；

had　wandered　across　the　great　Mongolian　desert　and　after

climbing　mountains　as　high　as　the　moon；　they　had　found　their

way　to　the　court　of　the　great　Khan　of　Cathay；　the　mighty

emperor　of　China。　The　son　of　one　of　the　Polos；　by　the　name

of　Marco；　had　written　a　book　about　their　adventures；　which

covered　a　period　of　more　than　twenty　years。　The　astonished

world　had　gaped　at　his　descriptions　of　the　golden　towers　of

the　strange　island　of　Zipangu；　which　was　his　Italian　way　of

spelling　Japan。　Many　people　had　wanted　to　go　east；　that

they　might　find　this　gold…land　and　grow　rich。　But　the　trip　was

too　far　and　too　dangerous　and　so　they　stayed　at　home。



Of　course；　there　was　always　the　possibility　of　making　the

voyage　by　sea。　But　the　sea　was　very　unpopular　in　the　Middle

Ages　and　for　many　very　good　reasons。　In　the　first　place；　ships

were　very　small。　The　vessels　on　which　Magellan　made　his

famous　trip　around　the　world；　which　lasted　many　years；　were

not　as　large　as　a　modern　ferryboat。　They　carried　from　twenty

to　fifty　men；　who　lived　in　dingy　quarters　（too　low　to　allow　any

of　them　to　stand　up　straight）　and　the　sailors　were　obliged　to

eat　poorly　cooked　food　as　the　kitchen　arrangements　were　very

bad　and　no　fire　could　be　made　whenever　the　weather　was　the

least　bit　rough。　The　mediaeval　world　knew　how　to　pickle　herring

and　how　to　dry　fish。　But　there　were　no　canned　goods

and　fresh　vegetables　were　never　seen　on　the　bill　of　fare　as

soon　as　the　coast　had　been　left　behind。　Water　was　carried　in

small　barrels。　It　soon　became　stale　and　then　tasted　of　rotten

wood　and　iron　rust　and　was　full　of　slimy　growing　things。　As

the　people　of　the　Middle　Ages　knew　nothing　about　microbes

（Roger　Bacon；　the　learned　monk　of　the　thirteenth　century

seems　to　have　suspected　their　existence；　but　he　wisely　kept

his　discovery　to　himself）　they　often　drank　unclean　water　and

sometimes　the　whole　crew　died　of　typhoid　fever。　Indeed　the

mortality　on　board　the　ships　of　the　earliest　navigators　was

terrible。　Of　the　two　hundred　sailors　who　in　the　year　1519　left

Seville　to　accompany　Magellan　on　his　famous　voyage　around

the　world；　only　eighteen　returned。　As　late　as　the　seventeenth

century　when　there　was　a　brisk　trade　between　western　Europe

and　the　Indies；　a　mortality　of　40　percent　was　nothing　unusual

for　a　trip　from　Amsterdam　to　Batavia　and　back。　The　greater

part　of　these　victims　died　of　scurvy；　a　disease　which　is　caused

by　lack　of　fresh　vegetables　and　which　affects　the　gums　and

poisons　the　blood　until　the　patient　dies　of　sheer　exhaustion。



Under　those　circumstances　you　will　understand　that　the　sea

did　not　attract　the　best　elements　of　the　population。　Famous

discoverers　like　Magellan　and　Columbus　and　Vasco　da　Gama

travelled　at　the　head　of　crews　that　were　almost　entirely　composed

of　ex…jailbirds；　future　murderers　and　pickpockets　out

of　a　Job。



These　navigators　certainly　deserve　our　admiration　for　the

courage　and　the　pluck　with　which　they　accomplished　their

hopeless　tasks　in　the　face　of　difficulties　of　which　the　people　of

our　own　comfortable　world　can　have　no　conception。　Their

ships　were　leaky。　The　rigging　was　clumsy。　Since　the　middle

of　the　thirteenth　century　they　had　possessed　some　sort　of　a

compass　（which　had　come　to　Europe　from　China　by　way　of

Arabia　and　the　Crusades）　but　they　had　very　bad　and　incorrect

maps。　They　set　their　course　by　God　and　by　guess。　If　luck

was　with　them　they　returned　after　one　or　two　or　three　years。

In　the　other　case；　their　bleeched　bones　remained　behind　on

some　lonely　beach。　But　they　were　true　pioneers。　They　gambled

with　luck。　Life　to　them　was　a　glorious　adventure。　And

all　the　suffering；　the　thirst　and　the　hunger　and　the　pain　were

forgotten　when　their　eyes　beheld　the　dim　outlines　of　a　new　coast

or　the　placid　waters　of　an　ocean　that　had　lain　forgotten　since

the　beginning　of　time。



Again　I　wish　that　I　could　make　this　book　a　thousand　pages

long。　The　subject　of　the　early　discoveries　is　so　fascinating。

But　history；　to　give　you　a　true　idea　of　past　times；　should　be

like　those　etchings　which　Rembrandt　used　to　make。　It　should

cast　a　vivid　light　on　certain　important　causes；　on　those　which

are　best　and　greatest。　All　the　rest　should　be　left　in　the　shadow

or　should　be　indicated　by　a　few　lines。　And　in　this　chapter　I

can　only　give　you　a　short　list　of　the　most　important　discoveries。



Keep　in　mind　that　all　during　the　fourteenth　and　fifteenth

centuries　the　navigators　were　trying　to　accomplish　just　ONE

THINGthey　wanted　to　find　a　comfortable　and　safe　road　to　the

empire　of　Cathay　（China）；　to　the　island　of　Zipangu　（Japan）

and　to　those　mysterious　islands；　where　grew　the　spices　which

the　mediaeval　world　had　come　to　like　since　the　days　of　the

Crusades；　and　which　people　needed　in　those　days　before　the

introduction　of　cold　storage；　when　meat　and　fish　spoiled　very

quickly　and　could　only　be　eaten　after　a　liberal　sprinkling　of

pepper　or　nutmeg。



The　Venetians　and　the　Genoese　had　been　the　great　navigators

of　the　Mediterranean；　but　the　honour　for　exploring　the

coast　of　the　Atlantic　goes　to　the　Portuguese。　Spain　and　Portugal

were　full　of　that　patriotic　energy　which　their　age…old

struggle　against　the　Moorish　invaders　had　developed。　Such

energy；　once　it　exists；　can　easily　be　forced　into　new　channels。

In　the　thirteenth　century；　King　Alphonso　III　had　conquered

the　kingdom　of　Algarve　in　the　southwestern　corner　of　the

Spanish　peninsula　and　had　added　it　to　his　dominions。　In　the

next　century；　the　Portuguese　had　turned　the　tables　on　the

Mohammedans；　had　crossed　the　straits　of　Gibraltar　and　had

taken　possession　of　Ceuta；　opposite　the　Arabic　city　of　Ta'Rifa

（a　word　which　in　Arabic　means　‘‘inventory''　and　which　by　way

of　the　Spanish　language　has　come　down　to　us　as　‘‘tariff；''）　and

Tangiers；　which　became　the　capital　of　an　African　addition　to

Algarve。



They　were　ready　to　begin　their　career　as　explorers。



In　the　year　1415；　Prince　Henry；　known　as　Henry　the

Navigator；　the　son　of　John　I　of　Portugal　and　Philippa；　the

daughter　of　John　of　Gaunt　（about　whom　you　can　read　in

Richard　II；　a　play　by　William　Shakespeare）　began　to　make

preparations　for　the　systematic　exploration　of　northwestern

Africa。　Before　this；　that　hot　and　sandy　coast　had　been　visited

by　the　Phoenicians　and　by　the　Norsemen；　who　remembered　it

as　the　home　of　the　hairy　‘‘wild　man''　whom　we　have　come　to

know　as　the　gorilla。　One　after　another；　Prince　Henry

and　his　captains　discovered　the　Canary　Islandsre…discovered

the　island　of　Madeira　which　a　century　before　had　been　visited

by　a　Genoese　ship；　carefully　charted　the　Azores　which　had

been　vaguely　known　to　both　the　Portuguese　and　the　Spaniards；

and　caught　a　glimpse　of　the　mouth　of　the　Senegal　River　on

the　west　coast　of　Africa；　which　they　supposed　to　be　the　western

mouth　of　the　Nile。　At　last；　by　the　middle　of　the　Fifteenth

Century；　they　saw　Cape　Verde；　or　the　Green　Cape；　and　the

Cape　Verde　Islands；　which　lie　almost　halfway　between　the

coast　of　Africa　and　Brazil。



But　Henry　did　not　restrict　himself　in　his　investigations　to

the　waters　of　the　Ocean。　He　was　Grand　Master　of　the　Order

of　Christ。　This　was　a　Portuguese　continuation　of　the　crusading

order　of　the　Templars　which　had　been　abolished　by

Pope　Clement　V　in　the　year　1312　at　the　request　of　King

Philip　the　Fair　of　France；　who　had　improved　the　occasion　by

burning　his　own　Templars　at　the　stake　and　stealing　all　their

possessions。　Prince　Henry　used　the　revenues　of　the　domains

of　his　religious　order　to　eq