the story of mankind-第39章

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！


rear　by　the　Catholics；　Gustavus　suddenly　veered　around　and

defeated　the　main　Habsburg　army　in　the　battle　of　Lutzen。

Unfortunately　the　Swedish　king　was　killed　when　he　strayed

away　from　his　troops。　But　the　Habsburg　power　had　been

broken。



Ferdinand；　who　was　a　suspicious　sort　of　person；　at　once

began　to　distrust　his　own　servants。　Wallenstein；　his　commander…

in…chief；　was　murdered　at　his　instigation。　When　the

Catholic　Bourbons；　who　ruled　France　and　hated　their　Habsburg

rivals；　heard　of　this；　they　joined　the　Protestant　Swedes。

The　armies　of　Louis　XIII　invaded　the　eastern　part　of　Germany；

and　Turenne　and　Conde　added　their　fame　to　that　of

Baner　and　Weimar；　the　Swedish　generals；　by　murdering；　pillaging

and　burning　Habsburg　property。　This　brought　great

fame　and　riches　to　the　Swedes　and　caused　the　Danes　to　become

envious。　The　Protestant　Danes　thereupon　declared　war　upon

the　Protestant　Swedes　who　were　the　allies　of　the　Catholic

French；　whose　political　leader；　the　Cardinal　de　Richelieu；　had

just　deprived　the　Huguenots　（or　French　Protestants）　of　those

rights　of　public　worship　which　the　Edict　of　Nantes　of　the　year

1598　had　guaranteed　them。



The　war；　after　the　habit　of　such　encounters；　did　not　decide

anything；　when　it　came　to　an　end　with　the　treaty　of　Westphalia

in　1648。　The　Catholic　powers　remained　Catholic　and

the　Protestant　powers　stayed　faithful　to　the　doctrines　of

Luther　and　Calvin　and　Zwingli。　The　Swiss　and　Dutch　Protestants

were　recognised　as　independent　republics。　France

kept　the　cities　of　Metz　and　Toul　and　Verdun　and　a　part　of　the

Alsace。　The　Holy　Roman　Empire　continued　to　exist　as　a　sort

of　scare…crow　state；　without　men；　without　money；　without　hope

and　without　courage。



The　only　good　the　Thirty　Years　War　accomplished　was　a

negative　one。　It　discouraged　both　Catholics　and　Protestants

from　ever　trying　it　again。　Henceforth　they　left　each　other　in

peace。　This　however　did　not　mean　that　religious　feeling　and

theological　hatred　had　been　removed　from　this　earth。　On　the

contrary。　The　quarrels　between　Catholic　and　Protestant

came　to　an　end；　but　the　disputes　between　the　different　Protestant

sects　continued　as　bitterly　as　ever　before。　In　Holland

a　difference　of　opinion　as　to　the　true　nature　of　predestination

（a　very　obscure　point　of　theology；　but　exceedingly　important

the　eyes　of　your　great…grandfather）　caused　a　quarrel　which

ended　with　the　decapitation　of　John　of　Oldenbarneveldt；　the

Dutch　statesman；　who　had　been　responsible　for　the　success　of

the　Republic　during　the　first　twenty　years　of　its　independence；

and　who　was　the　great　organising　genius　of　her　Indian　trading

company。　In　England；　the　feud　led　to　civil　war。



But　before　I　tell　you　of　this　outbreak　which　led　to　the　first

execution　by　process…of…law　of　a　European　king；　I　ought　to

say　something　about　the　previous　history　of　England。　In　this

book　I　am　trying　to　give　you　only　those　events　of　the　past

which　can　throw　a　light　upon　the　conditions　of　the　present

world。　If　I　do　not　mention　certain　countries；　the　cause　is　not

to　be　found　in　any　secret　dislike　on　my　part。　I　wish　that　I

could　tell　you　what　happened　to　Norway　and　Switzerland　and

Serbia　and　China。　But　these　lands　exercised　no　great　influence

upon　the　development　of　Europe　in　the　sixteenth　and

seventeenth　centuries。　I　therefore　pass　them　by　with　a　polite

and　very　respectful　bow。　England　however　is　in　a　different

position。　What　the　people　of　that　small　island　have　done　during

the　last　five　hundred　years　has　shaped　the　course　of　history

in　every　corner　of　the　world。　Without　a　proper　knowledge　of

the　background　of　English　history；　you　cannot　understand

what　you　read　in　the　newspapers。　And　it　is　therefore　necessary

that　you　know　how　England　happened　to　develop　a　parliamentary

form　of　government　while　the　rest　of　the　European　continent

was　still　ruled　by　absolute　monarchs。







THE　ENGLISH　REVOLUTION



HOW　THE　STRUGGLE　BETWEEN　THE　‘‘DIVINE

RIGHT''　OF　KINGS　AND　THE　LESS　DIVINE

BUT　MORE　REASONABLE　‘‘RIGHT　OF

PARLIAMENT''　ENDED　DISASTROUSLY　FOR

KING　CHARLES　II





CAESAR；　the　earliest　explorer　of　north…western　Europe；　had

crossed　the　Channel　in　the　year　55　B。C。　and　had　conquered

England。　During　four　centuries　the　country　then　remained

a　Roman　province。　But　when　the　Barbarians　began　to

threaten　Rome；　the　garrisons　were　called　back　from　the　frontier

that　they　might　defend　the　home　country　and　Britannia

was　left　without　a　government　and　without　protection。



As　soon　as　this　became　known　among　the　hungry　Saxon

tribes　of　northern　Germany；　they　sailed　across　the　North　Sea

and　made　themselves　at　home　in　the　prosperous　island。　They

founded　a　number　of　independent　Anglo…Saxon　kingdoms

（so　called　after　the　original　Angles　or　English　and　the　Saxon

invaders）　but　these　small　states　were　for　ever　quarrelling　with

each　other　and　no　King　was　strong　enough　to　establish　himself

as　the　head　of　a　united　country。　For　more　than　five　hundred

years；　Mercia　and　Northumbria　and　Wessex　and　Sussex

and　Kent　and　East　Anglia；　or　whatever　their　names；　were

exposed　to　attacks　from　various　Scandinavian　pirates。　Finally

in　the　eleventh　century；　England；　together　with　Norway　and

northern　Germany　became　part　of　the　large　Danish　Empire

of　Canute　the　Great　and　the　last　vestiges　of　independence

disappeared。



The　Danes；　in　the　course　of　time；　were　driven　away　but　no

sooner　was　England　free；　than　it　was　conquered　for　the　fourth

time。　The　new　enemies　were　the　descendants　of　another　tribe

of　Norsemen　who　early　in　the　tenth　century　had　invaded

France　and　had　founded　the　Duchy　of　Normandy。　William；

Duke　of　Normandy；　who　for　a　long　time　had　looked　across　the

water　with　an　envious　eye；　crossed　the　Channel　in　October

of　the　year　1066。　At　the　battle　of　Hastings；　on　October　the

fourteenth　of　that　year；　he　destroyed　the　weak　forces　of　Harold

of　Wessex；　the　last　of　the　Anglo…Saxon　Kings　and　established

himself　as　King　of　England。　But　neither　William　nor　his

successors　of　the　House　of　Anjou　and　Plantagenet　regarded

England　as　their　true　home。　To　them　the　island　was　merely　a

part　of　their　great　inheritance　on　the　continenta　sort　of

colony　inhabited　by　rather　backward　people　upon　whom　they

forced　their　own　language　and　civilisation。　Gradually　however

the　‘‘colony''　of　England　gained　upon　the　‘‘Mother

country''　of　Normandy。　At　the　same　time　the　Kings　of

France　were　trying　desperately　to　get　rid　of　the　powerful　Norman…

English　neighbours　who　were　in　truth　no　more　than　disobedient

servants　of　the　French　crown。　After　a　century　of　war

fare　the　French　people；　under　the　leadership　of　a　young　girl　by

the　name　of　Joan　of　Arc；　drove　the　‘‘foreigners''　from　their

soil。　Joan　herself；　taken　a　prisoner　at　the　battle　of　Compiegne

in　the　year　1430　and　sold　by　her　Burgundian　captors　to　the

English　soldiers；　was　burned　as　a　witch。　But　the　English

never　gained　foothold　upon　the　continent　and　their　Kings　were

at　last　able　to　devote　all　their　time　to　their　British　possessions。

As　the　feudal　nobility　of　the　island　had　been　engaged　in　one　of

those　strange　feuds　which　were　as　common　in　the　middle　ages

as　measles　and　small…pox；　and　as　the　greater　part　of　the　old

landed　proprietors　had　been　killed　during　these　so…called　Wars

of　the　Roses；　it　was　quite　easy　for　the　Kings　to　increase　their

royal　power。　And　by　the　end　of　the　fifteenth　century；　England

was　a　strongly　centralised　country；　ruled　by　Henry　VII

of　the　House　of　Tudor；　whose　famous　Court　of　Justice；　the

‘‘Star　Chamber''　of　terrible　memory；　suppressed　all　attempts

on　the　part　of　the　surviving　nobles　to　regain　their　old　influence

upon　the　government　of　the　country　with　the　utmost　severity。



In　the　year　1509　Henry　VII　was　succeeded　by　his　son

Henry　VIII；　and　from　that　moment　on　the　history　of　England

gained　a　new　importance　for　the　country　ceased　to　be　a

mediaeval　island　and　became　a　modern　state。



Henry　had　no　deep　interest　in　religion。　He　gladly　used　a

private　disagreement　with　the　Pope　about　one　of　his　many

divorces　to　declare　himself　independent　of　Rome　and　make

the　church　of　England　the　first　of　those　‘‘nationalistic　churches''

in　which　the　worldly　ruler　also　acts　as　the　spiritual　head　of　his

subjects。　This　peaceful　reformation　of　1034　not　only　gave

the　house　of　Tudor　the　support　of　the　English　clergy；　who

for　a　long　time　had　been　exposed　to　the　violent　attacks　of　many

Lutheran　propagandists；　but　it　also　increased　the　Royal　power

through　the　confiscation　of　the　former　possessions　of　the

monasteries。　At　the　same　time　it　made　Henry　popular　with　the

merchants　and　tradespeople；　who　as　the　proud　and　prosperous

inhabitants　of　an　island　which　was　separated　from　the　rest　of

Europe　by　a　wide　and　deep　channel；　had　a　great　dislike　for

everything　‘‘foreign''　and　did　not　want　an　Italian　bishop　to　rule

their　honest　British　souls。



In　1517　Henry　died。　He　left　the　throne　to　his　small　son；

aged　ten。　The　guardians　of　the　child；　favoring　the　modern

Lutheran　doctrines；　did　their　best　to　help　the　cause　of　Protestantism。

But　the　boy　died　before　he　was　sixteen；　and　was　succeeded

by　his　sister　Mary；　the　wife　of　Philip　II　of　Spain；　who

burned　the　bishops　of　the　new　‘‘national　church''　and　in　other

ways　followed　the　example　of　her　royal　Spanish　husband



Fortunately　she　died；　in　the　year　1558；　and　was　succeeded

by　Elizabeth；　the　daughter　of　Henry　VIII　and　Anne　Boleyn；

the　second　of　his　six　wives；　whom　he　had　decapitated　when　she

no　longer　pleased　him。　Elizabeth；　who　had　spent　some　time　in

prison；　and　who　had　been　released　only　at　the　request　of　the

Holy　Roman　Emperor；　was　a　most　cordial　enemy　of　everything

Catholic　and　Spanish。　She　shared　her　father's　indifference

in　the　matter　of　religion　but　she　inherited　his　ability　as　a

very　shrewd　judge　of　character；　and　spent　the　forty…five　years

of　her　reign　in　strengthening　the　power　of　the　dynasty　and　in

increasing　the　revenue　and　possessions　of　her　merry　islands。

In　this　she　was　most　ably　assisted　by　a　number　of　men　who

gathered　around　her　throne　and　made　the　Elizabethan　age　a

period　of　such　importance　that　you　ought　to　study　it　in　detail

in　one　of　the　special　books　of　which　I　shall　tell　you　in　the

bibliography　at　the　end　of　this　volume。



Elizabeth；　however；　did　not　feel　entirely　safe　upon　her

throne。　She　had　a　rival　and　a　very　dangerous　one。　Mary；

of　the　house　of　Stuart；　daughter　of　a　French　duchess　and　a

Scottish　father；　widow　of　king　Francis　II　of　France　and

daughter…in…law　of　Catherine　of　Medici　（who　had　organised

the　murders　of　Saint　Bartholomew's　night）；　was　the　mother　of

a　little　boy　who　was　afterwards　to　become　the　first　Stuart　king

of　England。　She　was　an　ardent　Catholic　and　a　willing　friend

to　those　who　were　the　enemies　of　Elizabeth。　Her　own　lack

of　political　ability　and　the　violent　methods　which　she　employed

to　punish　her　Calvinistic　subjects；　caused　a　revolution　in