the story of mankind-第42章

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classes　of　society。　Less　than　one　man　in　a　dozen　had　the　right

to　vote。　But　it　was　the　foundation　for　the　modern　representative

form　of　government。　In　a　quiet　and　orderly　fashion　it

took　the　power　away　from　the　King　and　placed　it　in　the　hands

of　an　ever　increasing　number　of　popular　representatives。　It　did

not　bring　the　millenium　to　England；　but　it　saved　that　country

from　most　of　the　revolutionary　outbreaks　which　proved　so

disastrous　to　the　European　continent　in　the　eighteenth　and

nineteenth　centuries。







THE　BALANCE　OF　POWER



IN　FRANCE　ON　THE　OTHER　HAND　THE　‘‘DIVINE

RIGHT　OF　KINGS''　CONTINUED　WITH

GREATER　POMP　AND　SPLENDOUR　THAN

EVER　BEFORE　AND　THE　AMBITION　OF

THE　RULER　WAS　ONLY　TEMPERED　BY

THE　NEWLY　INVENTED　LAW　OF　THE

‘‘BALANCE　OF　POWER''





As　a　contrast　to　the　previous　chapter；　let　me　tell　you　what

happened　in　France　during　the　years　when　the　English　people

were　fighting　for　their　liberty。　The　happy　combination

of　the　right　man　in　the　right　country　at　the　right　moment　is　very

rare　in　History。　Louis　XIV　was　a　realisation　of　this　ideal；　as

far　as　France　was　concerned；　but　the　rest　of　Europe　would

have　been　happier　without　him。



The　country　over　which　the　young　king　was　called　to　rule

was　the　most　populous　and　the　most　brilliant　nation　of　that

day。　Louis　came　to　the　throne　when　Mazarin　and　Richelieu；

the　two　great　Cardinals；　had　just　hammered　the　ancient　French

Kingdom　into　the　most　strongly　centralised　state　of　the　seventeenth

century。　He　was　himself　a　man　of　extraordinary　ability。

We；　the　people　of　the　twentieth　century；　are　still

surrounded　by　the　memories　of　the　glorious　age　of　the　Sun　King。

Our　social　life　is　based　upon　the　perfection　of　manners　and　the

elegance　of　expression　attained　at　the　court　of　Louis。　In

international　and　diplomatic　relations；　French　is　still　the　official

language　of　diplomacy　and　international　gatherings　because

two　centuries　ago　it　reached　a　polished　elegance　and　a　purity

of　expression　which　no　other　tongue　had　as　yet　been　able　to

equal。　The　theatre　of　King　Louis　still　teaches　us　lessons

which　we　are　only　too　slow　in　learning。　During　his　reign　the

French　Academy　（an　invention　of　Richelieu）　came　to　occupy

a　position　in　the　world　of　letters　which　other　countries　have

flattered　by　their　imitation。　We　might　continue　this　list　for

many　pages。　It　is　no　matter　of　mere　chance　that　our　modern

bill…of…fare　is　printed　in　French。　The　very　difficult　art　of

decent　cooking；　one　of　the　highest　expressions　of　civilisation；

was　first　practiced　for　the　benefit　of　the　great　Monarch。　The

age　of　Louis　XIV　was　a　time　of　splendour　and　grace　which　can

still　teach　us　a　lot。



Unfortunately　this　brilliant　picture　has　another　side　which

was　far　less　encouraging。　Glory　abroad　too　often　means

misery　at　home；　and　France　was　no　exception　to　this　rule

Louis　XIV　succeeded　his　father　in　the　year　1643。　He　died　in

the　year　1715。　That　means　that　the　government　of　France

was　in　the　hands　of　one　single　man　for　seventy…two　years；

almost　two　whole　generations。



It　will　be　well　to　get　a　firm　grasp　of　this　idea；　‘‘one　single

man。''　Louis　was　the　first　of　a　long　list　of　monarchs　who　in

many　countries　established　that　particular　form　of　highly　efficient

autocracy　which　we　call　‘‘enlightened　despotism。''　He

did　not　like　kings　who　merely　played　at　being　rulers　and

turned　official　affairs　into　a　pleasant　picnic。　The　Kings　of

that　enlightened　age　worked　harder　than　any　of　their　subjects。

They　got　up　earlier　and　went　to　bed　later　than　anybody　else；

and　felt　their　‘‘divine　responsibility''　quite　as　strongly　as　their

‘‘divine　right''　which　allowed　them　to　rule　without　consulting

their　subjects。



Of　course；　the　king　could　not　attend　to　everything　in　person。

He　was　obliged　to　surround　himself　with　a　few　helpers

and　councillors。　One　or　two　generals；　some　experts　upon　foreign

politics；　a　few　clever　financiers　and　economists　would　do

for　this　purpose。　But　these　dignitaries　could　act　only　through

their　Sovereign。　They　had　no　individual　existence。　To　the

mass　of　the　people；　the　Sovereign　actually　represented　in　his

own　sacred　person　the　government　of　their　country。　The

glory　of　the　common　fatherland　became　the　glory　of　a　single

dynasty。　It　meant　the　exact　opposite　of　our　own　American

ideal。　France　was　ruled　of　and　by　and　for　the　House　of　Bourbon。



The　disadvantages　of　such　a　system　are　clear。　The　King

grew　to　be　everything。　Everybody　else　grew　to　be　nothing　at

all。　The　old　and　useful　nobility　was　gradually　forced　to　give

up　its　former　shares　in　the　government　of　the　provinces。　A　little

Royal　bureaucrat；　his　fingers　splashed　with　ink；　sitting　behind

the　greenish　windows　of　a　government　building　in　faraway

Paris；　now　performed　the　task　which　a　hundred　years

before　had　been　the　duty　of　the　feudal　Lord。　The　feudal　Lord；

deprived　of　all　work；　moved　to　Paris　to　amuse　himself　as　best

he　could　at　the　court。　Soon　his　estates　began　to　suffer　from

that　very　dangerous　economic　sickness；　known　as　‘‘Absentee

Landlordism。''　Within　a　single　generation；　the　industrious

and　useful　feudal　administrators　had　become　the　well…mannered

but　quite　useless　loafers　of　the　court　of　Versailles。



Louis　was　ten　years　old　when　the　peace　of　Westphalia　was

concluded　and　the　House　of　Habsburg；　as　a　result　of　the

Thirty　Years　War；　lost　its　predominant　position　in　Europe。

It　was　inevitable　that　a　man　with　his　ambition　should　use　so

favourable　a　moment　to　gain　for　his　own　dynasty　the　honours

which　had　formerly　been　held　by　the　Habsburgs。　In　the　year

1660　Louis　had　married　Maria　Theresa；　daughter　of　the　King

of　Spain。　Soon　afterward；　his　father…in…law；　Philip　IV；　one

of　the　half…witted　Spanish　Habsburgs；　died。　At　once　Louis

claimed　the　Spanish　Netherlands　（Belgium）　as　part　of　his

wife's　dowry。　Such　an　acquisition　would　have　been　disastrous

to　the　peace　of　Europe；　and　would　have　threatened　the　safety

of　the　Protestant　states。　Under　the　leadership　of　Jan　de　Witt；

Raadpensionaris　or　Foreign　Minister　of　the　United　Seven

Netherlands；　the　first　great　international　alliance；　the　Triple

Alliance　of　Sweden；　England　and　Holland；　of　the　year　1661；

was　concluded。　It　did　not　last　long。　With　money　and　fair

promises　Louis　bought　up　both　King　Charles　and　the　Swedish

Estates。　Holland　was　betrayed　by　her　allies　and　was　left　to

her　own　fate。　In　the　year　1672　the　French　invaded　the　low

countries。　They　marched　to　the　heart　of　the　country。　For　a

second　time　the　dikes　were　opened　and　the　Royal　Sun　of

France　set　amidst　the　mud　of　the　Dutch　marshes。　The　peace

of　Nimwegen　which　was　concluded　in　1678　settled　nothing　but

merely　anticipated　another　war。



A　second　war　of　aggression　from　1689　to　1697；　ending　with

the　Peace　of　Ryswick；　also　failed　to　give　Louis　that　position　in

the　affairs　of　Europe　to　which　he　aspired。　His　old　enemy；

Jan　de　Witt；　had　been　murdered　by　the　Dutch　rabble；　but　his

successor；　William　III　（whom　you　met　in　the　last　chapter）；

had　checkmated　all　efforts　of　Louis　to　make　France　the　ruler　of

Europe。



The　great　war　for　the　Spanish　succession；　begun　in　the

year　1701；　immediately　after　the　death　of　Charles　II；　the　last

of　the　Spanish　Habsburgs；　and　ended　in　1713　by　the　Peace

of　Utrecht；　remained　equally　undecided；　but　it　had　ruined　the

treasury　of　Louis。　On　land　the　French　king　had　been　victorious；

but　the　navies　of　England　and　Holland　had　spoiled　all

hope　for　an　ultimate　French　victory；　besides　the　long　struggle

had　given　birth　to　a　new　and　fundamental　principle　of　international

politics；　which　thereafter　made　it　impossible　for　one

single　nation　to　rule　the　whole　of　Europe　or　the　whole　of　the

world　for　any　length　of　time。



That　was　the　so…called　‘‘balance　of　power。''　It　was　not　a

written　law　but　for　three　centuries　it　has　been　obeyed　as　closely

as　are　the　laws　of　nature。　The　people　who　originated　the　idea

maintained　that　Europe；　in　its　nationalistic　stage　of　development；

could　only　survive　when　there　should　be　an　absolute　balance

of　the　many　conflicting　interests　of　the　entire　continent。

No　single　power　or　single　dynasty　must　ever　be　allowed　to

dominate　the　others。　During　the　Thirty　Years　War；　the

Habsburgs　had　been　the　victims　of　the　application　of　this　law。

They；　however；　had　been　unconscious　victims。　The　issues　during

that　struggle　were　so　clouded　in　a　haze　of　religious　strife

that　we　do　not　get　a　very　clear　view　of　the　main　tendencies

of　that　great　conflict。　But　from　that　time　on；　we　begin　to　see

how　cold；　economic　considerations　and　calculations　prevail　in

all　matters　of　international　importance。　We　discover　the

development　of　a　new　type　of　statesman；　the　statesman　with　the

personal　feelings　of　the　slide…rule　and　the　cash…register。　Jan

de　Witt　was　the　first　successful　exponent　of　this　new　school

of　politics。　William　III　was　the　first　great　pupil。　And　Louis

XIV　with　all　his　fame　and　glory；　was　the　first　conscious　victim。

There　have　been　many　others　since。







THE　RISE　OF　RUSSIA



THE　STORY　OF　THE　MYSTERIOUS　MOSCOVITE

EMPIRE　WHICH　SUDDENLY　BURST　UPON

THE　GRAND　POLITICAL　STAGE　OF　EUROPE





IN　the　year　1492；　as　you　know；　Columbus　discovered　America。

Early　in　the　year；　a　Tyrolese　by　the　name　of　Schnups；

travelling　as　the　head　of　a　scientific　expedition　for　the

Archbishop　of　Tyrol；　and　provided　with　the　best　letters

of　introduction　and　excellent　credit　tried　to　reach　the　mythical

town　of　Moscow。　He　did　not　succeed。　When　he　reached　the

frontiers　of　this　vast　Moscovite　state　which　was　vaguely　supposed

to　exist　in　the　extreme　Eastern　part　of　Europe；　he　was

firmly　turned　back。　No　foreigners　were　wanted。　And

Schnups　went　to　visit　the　heathen　Turk　in　Constantinople；　in

order　that　he　might　have　something　to　report　to　his　clerical

master　when　he　came　back　from　his　explorations。



Sixty…one　years　later；　Richard　Chancellor；　trying　to　discover

the　North…eastern　passage　to　the　Indies；　and　blown　by

an　ill　wind　into　the　White　Sea；　reached　the　mouth　of　the　Dwina

and　found　the　Moscovite　village　of　Kholmogory；　a　few　hours

from　the　spot　where　in　1584　the　town　of　Archangel　was　founded。

This　time　the　foreign　visitors　were　requested　to　come

to　Moscow　and　show　themselves　to　the　Grand　Duke。　They

went　and　returned　to　England　with　the　first　commercial　treaty

ever　concluded　between　Russia　and　the　western　world。　Other

nations　soon　followed　and　something　became　known　of　this

mysterious　land。



Geographically；　Russia　is　a　vast　plain。　The　Ural　mountains

are　low　and　form　no　barrier　against　invaders。　The

rivers　are　broad　but　often　shallow。　It　was　an　ideal　territory　for

nomads。



While　the　Roman　Empire　was　founded；　grew　in　power　and

disappeared　again；　Slavic　tribes；　who　had　long　since　left　their

homes　in　Central　Asia；　wandered　aimlessly　through　the　forests

and　plains　of　the　region　between　the　Dniester　and　Dnieper

rivers。　The　Greek