the story of mankind-第43章

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and　plains　of　the　region　between　the　Dniester　and　Dnieper

rivers。　The　Greeks　had　sometimes　met　these　Slavs　and　a　few

travellers　of　the　third　and　fourth　centuries　mention　them。

Otherwise　they　were　as　little　known　as　were　the　Nevada　Indians

in　the　year　1800。



Unfortunately　for　the　peace　of　these　primitive　peoples；　a

very　convenient　trade…route　ran　through　their　country。　This

was　the　main　road　from　northern　Europe　to　Constantinople。

It　followed　the　coast　of　the　Baltic　until　the　Neva　was　reached。

Then　it　crossed　Lake　Ladoga　and　went　southward　along　the

Volkhov　river。　Then　through　Lake　Ilmen　and　up　the　small

Lovat　river。　Then　there　was　a　short　portage　until　the　Dnieper

was　reached。　Then　down　the　Dnieper　into　the　Black　Sea。



The　Norsemen　knew　of　this　road　at　a　very　early　date。　In

the　ninth　century　they　began　to　settle　in　northern　Russia；　just

as　other　Norsemen　were　laying　the　foundation　for　independent

states　in　Germany　and　France。　But　in　the　year　862；　three

Norsemen；　brothers；　crossed　the　Baltic　and　founded　three　small

dynasties。　Of　the　three　brothers；　only　one；　Rurik；　lived　for　a

number　of　years。　He　took　possession　of　the　territory　of　his

brothers；　and　twenty　years　after　the　arrival　of　this　first

Norseman；　a　Slavic　state　had　been　established　with　Kiev　as　its

capital。



From　Kiev　to　the　Black　Sea　is　a　short　distance。　Soon　the

existence　of　an　organised　Slavic　State　became　known　in

Constantinople。　This　meant　a　new　field　for　the　zealous

missionaries　of　the　Christian　faith。　Byzantine　monks　followed　the

Dnieper　on　their　way　northward　and　soon　reached　the　heart　of

Russia。　They　found　the　people　worshipping　strange　gods

who　were　supposed　to　dwell　in　woods　and　rivers　and　in　mountain

caves。　They　taught　them　the　story　of　Jesus。　There　was

no　competition　from　the　side　of　Roman　missionaries。　These

good　men　were　too　busy　educating　the　heathen　Teutons　to

bother　about　the　distant　Slavs。　Hence　Russia　received　its　religion

and　its　alphabet　and　its　first　ideas　of　art　and　architecture

from　the　Byzantine　monks　and　as　the　Byzantine　empire　（a

relic　of　the　eastern　Roman　empire）　had　become　very　oriental

and　had　lost　many　of　its　European　traits；　the　Russians　suffered

in　consequence。



Politically　speaking　these　new　states　of　the　great　Russian

plains　did　not　fare　well。　It　was　the　Norse　habit　to　divide

every　inheritance　equally　among　all　the　sons。　No　sooner　had

a　small　state　been　founded　but　it　was　broken　up　among　eight

or　nine　heirs　who　in　turn　left　their　territory　to　an　ever　increasing

number　of　descendants。　It　was　inevitable　that　these　small

competing　states　should　quarrel　among　themselves。　Anarchy

was　the　order　of　the　day。　And　when　the　red　glow　of　the　eastern

horizon　told　the　people　of　the　threatened　invasion　of　a　savage

Asiatic　tribe；　the　little　states　were　too　weak　and　too　divided

to　render　any　sort　of　defence　against　this　terrible　enemy。



It　was　in　the　year　1224　that　the　first　great　Tartar　invasion

took　place　and　that　the　hordes　of　Jenghiz　Khan；　the　conqueror

of　China；　Bokhara；　Tashkent　and　Turkestan　made　their　first

appearance　in　the　west。　The　Slavic　armies　were　beaten　near

the　Kalka　river　and　Russia　was　at　the　mercy　of　the　Mongolians。

Just　as　suddenly　as　they　had　come　they　disappeared。

Thirteen　years　later；　in　1237；　however；　they　returned。　In　less

than　five　years　they　conquered　every　part　of　the　vast　Russian

plains。　Until　the　year　1380　when　Dmitry　Donskoi；　Grand

Duke　of　Moscow；　beat　them　on　the　plains　of　Kulikovo；　the

Tartars　were　the　masters　of　the　Russian　people。



All　in　all；　it　took　the　Russians　two　centuries　to　deliver

themselves　from　this　yoke。　For　a　yoke　it　was　and　a　most

offensive　and　objectionable　one。　It　turned　the　Slavic　peasants

into　miserable　slaves。　No　Russian　could　hope　to　survive　un…

less　he　was　willing　to　creep　before　a　dirty　little　yellow　man　who

sat　in　a　tent　somewhere　in　the　heart　of　the　steppes　of　southern

Russia　and　spat　at　him。　It　deprived　the　mass　of　the　people　of

all　feeling　of　honour　and　independence。　It　made　hunger　and

misery　and　maltreatment　and　personal　abuse　the　normal　state

of　human　existence。　Until　at　last　the　average　Russian；　were　he

peasant　or　nobleman；　went　about　his　business　like　a　neglected

dog　who　has　been　beaten　so　often　that　his　spirit　has　been　broken

and　he　dare　not　wag　his　tail　without　permission。



There　was　no　escape。　The　horsemen　of　the　Tartar　Khan

were　fast　and　merciless。　The　endless　prairie　did　not　give　a

man　a　chance　to　cross　into　the　safe　territory　of　his　neighbour。

He　must　keep　quiet　and　bear　what　his　yellow　master　decided

to　inflict　upon　him　or　run　the　risk　of　death。　Of　course；　Europe

might　have　interfered。　But　Europe　was　engaged　upon　business

of　its　own；　fighting　the　quarrels　between　the　Pope　and

the　emperor　or　suppressing　this　or　that　or　the　other　heresy。

And　so　Europe　left　the　Slav　to　his　fate；　and　forced　him　to

work　out　his　own　salvation。



The　final　saviour　of　Russia　was　one　of　the　many　small　states；

founded　by　the　early　Norse　rulers。　It　was　situated　in　the　heart

of　the　Russian　plain。　Its　capital；　Moscow；　was　upon　a　steep

hill　on　the　banks　of　the　Moskwa　river。　This　little　principality；

by　dint　of　pleasing　the　Tartar　（when　it　was　necessary　to

please）；　and　opposing　him　（when　it　was　safe　to　do　so）；　had；

during　the　middle　of　the　fourteenth　century　made　itself　the

leader　of　a　new　national　life。　It　must　be　remembered　that　the

Tartars　were　wholly　deficient　in　constructive　political　ability。

They　could　only　destroy。　Their　chief　aim　in　conquering　new

territories　was　to　obtain　revenue。　To　get　this　revenue　in　the

form　of　taxes；　it　was　necessary　to　allow　certain　remnants　of

the　old　political　organization　to　continue。　Hence　there　were

many　little　towns；　surviving　by　the　grace　of　the　Great　Khan；

that　they　might　act　as　tax…gatherers　and　rob　their　neighbours

for　the　benefit　of　the　Tartar　treasury。



The　state　of　Moscow；　growing　fat　at　the　expense　of　the

surrounding　territory；　finally　became　strong　enough　to　risk

open　rebellion　against　its　masters；　the　Tartars。　It　was　successful

and　its　fame　as　the　leader　in　the　cause　of　Russian　independence

made　Moscow　the　natural　centre　for　all　those　who

still　believed　in　a　better　future　for　the　Slavic　race。　In　the　year

1458；　Constantinople　was　taken　by　the　Turks。　Ten　years

later；　under　the　rule　of　Ivan　III；　Moscow　informed　the

western　world　that　the　Slavic　state　laid　claim　to　the　worldly

and　spiritual　inheritance　of　the　lost　Byzantine　Empire；　and

such　traditions　of　the　Roman　empire　as　had　survived　in

Constantinople。　A　generation　afterwards；　under　Ivan　the　Terrible；

the　grand　dukes　of　Moscow　were　strong　enough　to　adopt　the

title　of　Caesar；　or　Tsar；　and　to　demand　recognition　by　the　western

powers　of　Europe。



In　the　year　1598；　with　Feodor　the　First；　the　old　Muscovite

dynasty；　descendants　of　the　original　Norseman　Rurik；　came　to

an　end。　For　the　next　seven　years；　a　Tartar　half…breed；　by　the

name　of　Boris　Godunow；　reigned　as　Tsar。　It　was　during

this　period　that　the　future　destiny　of　the　large　masses　of　the

Russian　people　was　decided。　This　Empire　was　rich　in　land

but　very　poor　in　money。　There　was　no　trade　and　there　were

no　factories。　Its　few　cities　were　dirty　villages。　It　was　composed

of　a　strong　central　government　and　a　vast　number　of

illiterate　peasants。　This　government；　a　mixture　of　Slavic；

Norse；　Byzantine　and　Tartar　influences；　recognised　nothing

beyond　the　interest　of　the　state。　To　defend　this　state；　it

needed　an　army。　To　gather　the　taxes；　which　were　necessary

to　pay　the　soldiers；　it　needed　civil　servants。　To　pay　these　many

officials　it　needed　land。　In　the　vast　wilderness　on　the　east

and　west　there　was　a　sufficient　supply　of　this　commodity。　But

land　without　a　few　labourers　to　till　the　fields　and　tend　the

cattle；　has　no　value。　Therefore　the　old　nomadic　peasants

were　robbed　of　one　privilege　after　the　other；　until　finally；　during

the　first　year　of　the　sixteenth　century；　they　were　formally

made　a　part　of　the　soil　upon　which　they　lived。　The　Russian

peasants　ceased　to　be　free　men。　They　became　serfs　or　slaves

and　they　remained　serfs　until　the　year　1861；　when　their　fate

had　become　so　terrible　that　they　were　beginning　to　die　out。



In　the　seventeenth　century；　this　new　state　with　its　growing

territory　which　was　spreading　quickly　into　Siberia；　had　become

a　force　with　which　the　rest　of　Europe　was　obliged　to

reckon。　In　1618；　after　the　death　of　Boris　Godunow；　the

Russian　nobles　had　elected　one　of　their　own　number　to　be

Tsar。　He　was　Michael；　the　son　of　Feodor；　of　the　Moscow　family

of　Romanow　who　lived　in　a　little　house　just　outside　the

Kremlin。



In　the　year　1672　his　great…grandson；　Peter；　the　son　of　another

Feodor；　was　born。　When　the　child　was　ten　years　old；

his　step…sister　Sophia　took　possession　of　the　Russian　throne。

The　little　boy　was　allowed　to　spend　his　days　in　the　suburbs　of

the　national　capital；　where　the　foreigners　lived。　Surrounded

by　Scotch　barkeepers；　Dutch　traders；　Swiss　apothecaries；　Italian

barbers；　French　dancing　teachers　and　German　school…masters；

the　young　prince　obtained　a　first　but　rather　extraordinary

impression　of　that　far…away　and　mysterious　Europe　where

things　were　done　differently。



When　he　was　seventeen　years　old；　he　suddenly　pushed

Sister　Sophia　from　the　throne。　Peter　himself　became　the　ruler

of　Russia。　He　was　not　contented　with　being　the　Tsar　of　a

semi…barbarous　and　half…Asiatic　people。　He　must　be　the　sovereign

head　of　a　civilised　nation。　To　change　Russia　overnight

from　a　Byzantine…Tartar　state　into　a　European　empire　was　no

small　undertaking。　It　needed　strong　hands　and　a　capable

head。　Peter　possessed　both。　In　the　year　1698；　the　great

operation　of　grafting　Modern　Europe　upon　Ancient　Russia　was

performed。　The　patient　did　not　die。　But　he　never　got　over

the　shock；　as　the　events　of　the　last　five　years　have　shown　very

plainly。







RUSSIA　vs。　SWEDEN



RUSSIA　AND　SWEDEN　FIGHT　MANY　WARS　TO

DECIDE　WHO　SHALL　BE　THE　LEADING

POWER　OF　NORTH…EASTERN　EUROPE





IN　the　year　1698；　Tsar　Peter　set　forth　upon　his　first

voyage　to　western　Europe。　He　travelled　by　way　of　Berlin　and

went　to　Holland　and　to　England。　As　a　child　he　had　almost

been　drowned　sailing　a　homemade　boat　in　the　duck　pond　of

his　father's　country　home。　This　passion　for　water　remained

with　him　to　the　end　of　his　life。　In　a　practical　way　it　showed

itself　in　his　wish　to　give　his　land…locked　domains　access　to

the　open　sea。



While　the　unpopular　and　harsh　young　ruler　was　away

from　home；　the　friends　of　the　old　Russian　ways　in　Moscow　set

to　work　to　undo　all　his　reforms。　A　sudden　rebellion　among

his　life…guards；　the　Streltsi　regiment；　forced　Peter　to　hasten

home　by　the　fast　mail。　He　appointed　himself　executioner…in…

chief　and　the　Streltsi　were　hanged　and　quartered　and　killed　to

the　last　man。　Sister　Sophia；　who　had　been　the　head　of　the

rebellion；　was